"从无创有”:对摩门教创造论的评审
Summary
从哲学和科学的角度来评审摩门教对物质永恒性的教义。
摩门教学者史蒂芬·E·罗宾逊(Stephen E. Robinson)在合著的书《鸿沟有多宽?摩门教徒和福音派基督徒的对话》(How Wide the Divide? A Mormon and an Evangelical in Conversation)之中提到摩门教徒“不接受‘正统的’基督教大公会议和信经”。然而,他们却“接受没有附加神学注释的圣经”。[1] 在这本书的最后,它提出了这个问题:“初期基督徒信经的古典版本,在承认它们曾经用后期的哲学语言重新表述过,这版本是否仍然准确地展述有关神和基督的圣经真理,还是他们在信经制定中引进了希腊观念以致扭曲了圣经的真理? [2]
听到摩门教指控无中生有的创造理论并不稀奇,说这只是在经文上强加没有根据的哲学或神学框架的一个例子。传统上,摩门教主张物质是永恒的,神(大致上来说)就是一位永恒物质的工匠、或塑造者、或重新组合者,或者说大概是半实体原料,既不是个体,也不是非个体。[3] 这就是摩门教徒所宣称的“创造”——而不是无中生有的创造。.罗伯斯(B.H. Roberts),一位摩门教长老,也是第一届七十理事(First Council of Seventy)的成员之一,宣称说,“基督徒把从‘无’创有这种错误的观念当成教义,假设神对宇宙的超越性。他们接受‘创造’就是从不存在进入存在,并终极诅咒那些教导不一样观点的人。” [4]
在第一部分,我们将陈述圣经及神学中支持从无创有教义的有关资料。第二部分,我们将提供支持 从无创有的哲学及科学资料,这些资料列出一些反对永恒过去观念的演绎和归纳论据。最后,我们以如何让从无创有的圣经、神学和科学证据能被摩门教神学所采纳的反思来结束。
I. 从无创有论的圣经及神学支持
在一篇题为《摩门教人生观(A Mormon View on Life)》的文章中,洛厄尔·本尼恩(Lowell Bennion)如此陈述:“摩门教圣徒拒绝无中生有的创造论。他们认为智慧和元素是一直都存在的,与神一样是永恒的。神拥有无比的创造大能,但是他所用的原料却不是祂自己创造出来的。” [5] 更早期,奥森·普拉特(Orson Pratt)在1876年断言说构成地球的物质是“永恒的”。[6] 普拉特的观点也说神没有从无创有。他宣称没有“经文”(也就是圣经和摩门教神圣的著作例如《摩门经(Book of Mormon)或摩门教义和圣约(Doctrine and Covenants)》)“如此提示”。[7]
摩门教神学家约翰·维特苏(John Widtsoe)认为从无创有的信念除了引起困惑之外,并不能成就什么:“认为物质可以从非物质状态,也就是从虚无演变出来的观念带来很多的矛盾。” [8] 除此之外,维特苏也断言神不能(从虚无)创造物质,也不能毁灭它:“神,拥有宇宙至高的智慧,能够使用能量来成全他的旨意,但祂并不能创造或毁灭能量。” [9] 无论形式如何,物质和能量的总和是不变的。
圣经证据确实证实了摩门教圣徒所重组的创造论吗?从无创有的教父只是虚构的谎言吗?
A. 圣经的论证
传统的基督教教义认为神是物质宇宙以及一切现实的至高创造者。[10] 例如, 第四届拉特兰大公会义(Lateran Council )在1215年正式宣告:“我们坚信并且单纯地承认,真神只有一位,祂是有形及无形、精神及肉体万物的创造者;祂在时间之初始以祂的大能从虚无中(de nihilo condidit)创造了有灵命又有肉体的生物。”从无创有的教义有两个主要特点:
(1) 所有个体的存在在实质上都必须依靠神。
(2) 宇宙及除神之外的一切现实都有一个开始,并不是一直存在的。[11]
现在,小肯德尔·怀特(O. Kendall White, Jr.)错过了从无创有理论的重点当他声称“典型的”摩门教对从无创有的批评认为所有个体的存在都必须完全依靠神是荒谬的——。[12] 不可否认,有些基督教神学家 [13] 相信创造无非就是在本质上的依靠(也就是说,神为所有存在的东西提供了维护使他们不至于化为无有的条件);这些思想家视时间的起源为毫无关联的——或近乎无关紧要的。[14] 我们应当辩论,虽然这种创造的观点并没有抓住这个基督教关键教义的要点,这要点宣称神与所有其它的现实不同,他不仅维持一切,也在有限的时段前带出了这一切的存在。
在奥古斯丁(Augustine)巧妙地抓住了这个基督教的教义,当他辩论,既然唯独神是存在的个体,他意愿前所未存的或非个体的进入存在。神不仅是无形和永恒原始材料的塑造者。奥古斯丁也说,“你并非如人类匠工般的工作,按着自己的意志把一物造成另一物……你单用话语就创造了(天地)。” [15] 对于基督徒来说,从无创有更适合代表时间的起源和物质世界在本质上的依靠性。[16]
现在,根据B.H.罗伯斯,“(创造)这个字本身....在经文中的使用没有要求犹如这类的阐释(就是从无创有)。” [17] 再者,“‘创造’这个词本身并没有要求它必须要被解释成‘从无创有’。” [18]
所以,要把从无创有方案的整个基础都建立在bârâ'这个字跟希腊文的“创造”(ktizô)这个字上确实是不智之举,因为含义是超过字词的。(试想英语中跑“run”这个词的的多种含义:如丝袜抽丝,竞选总统,赛跑得奖,等等。)字词本身是不足以确定要表达的意思。还有其他如文本环境,语言架构,写作资料,文体特征,等类因素必须加入考虑范围内。例如,当我们研读保罗因信称义(dikaiosunê)的教义而看到它司法或者应属的性质,[19],我们不能简单地说因信称义(dikaiosunê)这个词是很容易明白的,只是因为马太总是用它来解释个人的行为,而非一个因信而得到应属的义。[20] 虽然某个字词可能会有很多可能的意思,但却非无限的。所以在我们面前真正的问题是:当我们在谈论某个字时,我们怎能在作者所写的特定环境下来理解它呢?
一个摩门教常用的手法就是从一个词的词源来理解词义。B.H.罗伯斯在解释‘创造’这个词时也是这样做的,这确实是一条危险的途径。他承认犹太百科全书所指出的——就是,“大部分犹太哲学家承认创世纪1:1里面提到的‘创造’是‘从无创有’的意思。” [21] 这个事实是十分显著的,当然也支持传统上对创造的理解,却与摩门教的观点相反。之后,罗伯斯犯了用词源来解释支持摩门教对文本译释的错误:“犹太百科全书讲到‘创造’这动词词源的含义是‘裁剪(以便)置入形成’,因此就假设了物质的使用。” [22] 然后他引申:“神的‘创造’包含着‘从已存在的物质’来形成。 [23] 他后来补充; ‘创造’这动词的词源暗示从已存之物的创造。” [24]
然而,现代语言学家和解经学家表示,用词源学来解释字义有误导。例如,英语中很好(nice)这个词源于拉丁词语nescius,本意是“无知的”。[25] 但是我们不能因此引申:一个“很好”的人是无知的人!在大多数的情况下,一个字词在历史上不同时代的 [26] 含义很少和它的本义(也就是词源义)相同。如圣经学者莫伊塞斯·席尔瓦(Moisés Silva)强调的:“现代的研究迫使我们拒绝这种态度(就是把词源义当成字词的‘基本’或者‘真正’含义),也无法信任字词的历史根源。[27] ”詹姆斯·巴尔(James Barr)也断言:“重点是词源不是陈述字词的含义,而是字词的历史。” [28]
现在,大家都知道bârâ'(创造)被用作,如,神创造以色列(例见:以赛亚书43:15),或者说神创造清洁的心(诗篇51:12),显然,这不该被理解为无中生有的创造。更扼要的是:当我们读到有关神创造宇宙的特定篇幅时,哪个观点(最)得到经文的支持——摩门教的理解还是基督教的呢?假设在最糟的情况下,即使圣经在这两个立场上(相对创造还有绝对创造)保持中立,那么摩门学者仍旧没有证实他们的声明说圣经是支持他们的观点。
在我对这个问题的分析里,我们应该经常参考在德国美因兹(Mainz, Germany)约翰内斯·古腾堡大学(Johannes Gutenberg Universitaet)的神学教授格哈德·枚(Gerhard May)的著作。在他的著作《从无创有:早期基督徒思想中的创造论》里,他表达了普遍接纳的摩门教观点:经文并没有从无创有信念的要求。[29] 不幸的是,枚教授以及大部分摩门学者,都没有怎么捍卫这观点。虽然他指出某些似乎是在暗示从无创有的圣经章节,他并没有好好的切磋,却轻易的就带了过去。他着重教父的研究(就如他书的副标题所提示的),而非经文的解释。摩门教学者参考枚教授 [30] 或引用依据枚教授分析的文章是很耐人寻味的,但这最终却消弱了他们的论点:这些参考资料往往跳过了经文的解释(正如枚教授所做的),直接就进入神学家对神学的讨论。[31]
摩门教学术界对圣经在创造的解释上出奇地沉默。枚教授本人在经文分析上的沉默消弱了他自己的立场,如果处理的恰当,合理的圣经解释是可以驳倒说从无创有只不过是神学编造的理论。例如,罗马书4:17(说神使无变为有),和希伯来书11:3(所看见的并不是从显然之物造出来的)而这些章节都被枚教授忽略为配合其它希腊犹太教适当的陈述——这些陈述似乎是在支持从无创有,但实际上却是在坚持世界的形成是从已经存在的物质转化而来的信念。
可能有人会想,难道这就是所有问题的关键。看来这种未经任何辩论就下的断言,恐怕带有误导性。事实上,枚教授给人的错觉,认为无中生有的创造只是有心的基督教神学家编造出来的,他们为了护卫他们所相信的圣经观点,神有绝对的主权,绝对的自由,绝对的掌控,即使面对诺斯底异端的嫌疑。我们相信更广泛地考察相关的圣经经文,会充分表明传统教导中从无创有的理论比起从永远存在物质中创造的概念有更坚实的圣经基础。
沃尔特·艾希罗特(Walter Eichrodt)表述了旧约对绝对创造所隐含的假设:“被造世界有绝对的开始,这观念被证明为祭司整观告白的一个合理的表达。” [32] 例如:根据艾希罗特的看法,以赛亚书40:21,参照了创世纪1:1,但它运用“自从立地的根基”这个平行句,明显的指着“一个绝对的开始”而不是“随意的判断。” [33] 他认为,从无创有这个教义是“毋庸置疑的” [34] ——尤其当作者是严谨的一神论者,又对古代宇宙起源的说法——诸神都从恒古永存之物中显现而来的观念,与他自己观点有极端的不同。艾希罗特辩说“对[创造] 叙述的最终目的跟我们从无创有公式的目的是一样的。” [35] 尽管这公式在旧约中并没有出现,神创造行动的对象是“天和地及其间所有的”;因此创造不能被限制在“星星和地上的事物”,而必须包括“整个宇宙”。[36] 因为“天和地”事实上是在修辞上用两个对立的字来代表一个总和,在此为“宇宙现象的整体”,向我们指明宇宙有一个绝对的开始——包括物质在内。[37] 其实,“希伯来语中”没有一个表达整体的单词,因此才运用这样的组词。[38] 克劳斯·韦斯特曼(Claus Westermann)同意:创世纪1:1并没有说某个事物的开始,只是说,起初。所有一切都是从神开始的。 [39]
另一位旧约学者,R.K.哈瑞森(R.K. Harrison)断言,虽然从无创有“对(希伯来)人的思想是抽象到无法理解”,而且在创世纪第一章中也没有清楚地陈述,然而“它确实在叙述里暗示。” [40] 读者应该理解“世界并非由已存之物所塑造的,而在神的创造行动“之前”,是在虚无中”“因此没有其他类似的现象存在。” [41] 同样地,爱德文·哈驰(Edwin Hatch)承认虽然希腊柏拉图语言供应了“哲学定义”来帮助基督教创世论教义的发展,但是认为神“不单是宇宙的建筑师,也是它的源头”可能在很长的时期内这都只是“希伯来一神论所把持的不合理的信念。” [42] 也就是说,形而上学的语言和思想系统只有到后来才能体现出旧约对创造文本的寓意。
再者,无论我们如何在bârâ'这个字词上加上多少神学意义,这字本身并没表达从无创有——或重新组合的意义。沙罗木·M.保罗(Shalom M. Paul),一位亚述学者引用史蒂芬·里克斯(Stephen Ricks) [43],他指出bârâ'这个词本身“并没有引申”从无创有的意思(虽然保罗承认在《马卡比后书》7:28有这样的含义)。[44] 然而,bârâ'这个字词的意义在于神永远是这个动词的主语。相关的希伯来字词'asah(“制作”)有不同的含义,那就是任何人都可以用已有的原料来制作。而且,当用到bârâ'这个字词时,从来都没有提到神用了什么已有的原料。制作出来的产物总是会被提及——但是从来不提原料。[45] 因此,bârâ'这个字是最适合用来表述从无创有的观念。事实上,没有其他的希伯来字能带出这果效。况且,从无创有的观念在创世纪1:1就暗示了,因为没有提到神有开始。[46]
因为神总是bârâ'这动词的主语,解经家们通常都了解创造这个字无可否认的是在描述神圣的活动。[47] 德国神学家哲亘·莫特曼(Jurgen Moltmann)抓準了这点:
说神‘创造’了这个世界表示神本身与这个世界有分别,并且强调神渴望如此行……这是神祂意志决定的特定结果。因为天地都是神创造的产物,因此它们...都是附随的。[48]
在这个观点下,约瑟夫·史密斯(Joseph Smith)对希伯来语的创造有错误的理解,因为他把重新组合应用在bârâ'上,而应该正确的用在asah上。
与古代天体演化学相比,古代的观点是没有绝对的开始,而创世纪独树一帜的主张有一个绝对的开始。神在创造时并没有被混沌所限制(如巴比伦的宇宙进化论),而是掌握着对一切元素的主权。创世纪1:1就是一个独立的宣告,声明神创造了整个宇宙。其实,创世纪1:1的结构就是在辩证无中生有的创造。无论是从语法上还是文本上,我们都可以看出创世纪1:1指的是绝对的创造。[49] 约翰·沙翰墨(John Sailhamer)指出:
圣经学者向来都相信“从无创有”的观念可在创世纪第1章的开头语找到……这词句除了“从无创有”的意思之外,几乎找不到其他的含义。宇宙有一个“开始”这个简单的观念本身就代表它是“从虚无”中创造出来的。[50]
按照莫特曼(Moltmann)对bârâ'的评论说,bârâ'这个字是一个专门用来表达 “神所带出”的独特的术语。[51] 他也指出 bârâ'这个字不采用(某物)为造物的材料作为这动词的宾格,显明“神的创造是不受条件或前提的限制。创造绝对是全新的。它既不是已有的潜质或存在已有之物中。” [52] 如维纳·福尔斯特(Werner Foerster)所写的,创世纪第一章中的创造乃是“靠着神的话从虚无中产生的。” [53] 因此,创世纪不应该像新美国版圣经般的被翻译为,“起初,神创造了天地,地原是一片混沌的荒地……,” [54] 甚至伯纳·安德森(Bernhard Anderson),即使他对创世纪1:2的观点是出于混乱的创造,也承认“文体学研究”是利于将创世纪1:1看为“绝对的陈述句” [55] 这种对创世纪1:1肯定的理解和它作为一个独立的子句是出于七十士译本 [56] 及“所有古代的译本”。 [57] 评论学家科里(Keil)和德利思琪(Delitzsch)宣布说翻译出来的短语“起初” ((berêshît))是“绝对的语气”,像“最初始,当……时”显然“无法”合理的处理这文本。[58] 据他们推测,“上下文”指的是“最初的开始”。[59] 因此,世界的永恒性及“任何原存之物”的可能性都被语言上绝对的短语“起初”,或整体的提喻“天地”这类词语给排除了。这些又都是希伯来文对整体所能有的最好表述。[60] 布鲁斯·瓦特可(Bruce Waltke)注意到圣经的第一个字是以“绝对的语气”,和第一节经文是用“独立的子句”这在“犹太教和基督教的传统”中都是一致的。他接着评论说;“摩西不可能用别的文字结构来表示第一个字就代表绝对的语文形式,但是他是可以选择不同的结构来清楚的表达结构的状态。” [61]
旧约学者托马斯·马可莫斯基(Thomas McComiskey)同意bârâ'这个字强调事物的起始,开始带出新的事物。[62] 爱德华·P.安博思(Edward P. Arbez)和约翰·P.温思福(John P. Weisengoff)进一步支持,除了创世纪的文本没有提到在神的创造之前有任何混沌的事物存在以外,[63] bârâ'这动词用在创世纪一章,从它的上下文来看,最好的诠释就是从无创有。例如,神的行动(用bârâ'来表达)带出了宇宙(“天和地”)“在起初”(就是宇宙藉着神的行动就有了一个开始)。这里也没有提到在神用了任何原存之物。“创造”是比“塑造”或者“形成”之类的词更为恰当的翻译。[64] 这些学者颇为有力地下了这样的结论,
创世纪第一章的整章都洋溢着神的超然以及所有个体的生存都全然的依靠着神的观念。“从无创有”似乎跟作者对神的观点在逻辑上这么的相辅相成,几乎没有人可以拒绝在他开幕的声言中看到这点。[65]
肯尼斯·马太(Kenneth Mathews)对创世纪第一章的分析使他作出这样的结论:“从无创有的观念是从这整章哲理中引申出合理的神学推断。” [66]
我们也必须清除七十士译本对创世纪1:2(hê de gê ên aoratos kai akataskeuastos = "地是空虚混沌,渊面黑暗 ")的曲解所带来的困惑。这一节的翻译清楚显出了希腊文化的影响 [67] 像是美译版AV和修订标准版RSV这类英文译本将tôh˚ wabôh˚ 这个词用希腊语法翻译成“空虚混沌(without form and void)”。这种译法把某种程度的希腊思想带入许多基督徒的思想中。照这种说法,地球是某种尚未定形的质量。但是,这句话的措辞, 当考虑到后期圣经的用法(其中有些追溯到创世纪1:2),让我们更能(也更不受希腊思想影响)来理解,地是荒凉的,不适宜居住的,如维克多·汉密尔顿(Victor Hamilton)所翻译的:一片荒无人烟的土地 [68] 那些没有受到七十士译本影响的中世纪犹太翻译家也赞成这种看法。[69] 更能巩固这观点的的是七十士译本后期希腊版本也离开了柏拉图的创造论进入一个更符合圣经的观点:(亚基拉译本:“空虚无物”,辛马库译本:“不活跃,不清楚”)[70] 而且,最早的闪族(巴勒斯坦)塔库姆译本,也就是希伯来圣经的解释译本,找不到七十士译本观念“的痕迹”。[71] 例如,尼奥菲提之塔库姆译本(不晚于公元三世纪,很可能早于基督教)将创世纪1:2译释为“荒芜,没有人烟,动物,没有任何耕植和树的存在,”这抓到希伯来文的含义。讽刺的是,看来是摩门教宇宙论比他们觉察到的更受到希腊思想的影响!
所以我们不需要看创世纪1:2为创造之前还有别的物质存在的根据。正如凯尔(Keil)和德利思琪(Delitzsch)所说:“‘地是混沌虚空’不是在创造前,而是在神创造之时,或者之后。” [72] 反而,没有任何在神以外而属于宇宙组合之物,无论是材料或形式“存在神圣创造的举动之前,宇宙并没有任何的组合。” [73] 虽然摩门教学者表面上是用创世纪1:2的注释重点,但这是误导。其实,创世纪1:2是以希伯来文WAW文法的连续词开头["地是. . ."]表示创世纪1:1在时间上是处于创世纪1:2之前。[74]
经文对从无创有进一步的支持就是神(或基督)被认为是创造者,或是现存所有一切的终极源头。虽然枚教授让人觉得从无创有的圣经证据是模糊的,但要在圣经语言的整体含义上有所改进是很难的了:“万有……本于他”(罗马书11:36);“万物都是藉着他(基督)有的”(哥林多前书8:6);“创造万物之神”(以弗所书3:9);“一切都是藉着他造的”(歌罗西书1:16;比较20);“你创造了万物,并且万物是因你的旨意被创造而有的”(启示录4:11)。耶和华的名“首先的和末后的”(以赛亚书44:6)或者“阿拉法和俄梅葛”(启示录1:8)都表明祂是终极的原始,唯一的永恒个体。箴言8:22-26陈述,在深渊(很可能就是创世纪1:2中提到的“渊面”)被立定之前,智慧与神一同创造——除了创造者之外没有其他的东西存在,这就排除了任何原存之物的说法。
再者,当经文宣告神的永恒和自给自足,比起有限的被造物,(诗篇102:25-27;比较希伯来书1:10-12),从无创有的观念相形之下就更被巩固了。神“有能力从虚无有中创造天地,也有能力将这一切化为无有。” [75] 以赛亚书40-48章里隐喻着神在创造时彰显的至高权柄和独特性,除祂以外别无他神,或任何其他东西:“我是首先的,我是末后的”(对照以赛亚书44:6和48:12);“我耶和华是创造万物的”(44:24);“我是耶和华,再没有别神”(对照45:18和46:9),如沃福特·潘宁博(Wolfhart Pannenberg)的评论,
(旧约)对创造的陈述,例如在诗篇104:14-30;139:13;147:8里,拒绝将神创造的大能限制在牵连着已存之物的条件下。如创世纪第1章表达神藉着话语创造天地的观念,这些都引申神在没有限制的自由下创造的举动,这是后来‘从无创有’所要表达的。[76]
并且,创造论假定神的话单独的带出了宇宙的创造——而非神的话指使已存之物而造成的。诗篇33的宣告是“藉耶和华的命[LXX: tô logô tou kyriou]”还有“他口中的气”“诸天被造”;祂“说”或“命令”,然后就“被造/成立[LXX: ektisthêsen]” (6,9)。[77] 神并没有被限定在已存之物的条件下,是神命令的话语将创造呈现出来的。[78]
托马斯·马可莫斯基对旧约创造理解的主力作了很好的总结。
这个词只限用来描述神的活动,表示[of bârâ']这词根所圈定的含义范围是超出人类的能力。这个词从来没有应用在以物质为受词的情况下,并且这个词主要在强调被造物的新奇,因此这个词就很恰当地描述了无中生有的创造,虽然这个概念并不一定是这个词本身固有的含义。[79]
至于新约,希伯来书11:3 是值得我们格外注意的章节“我们因着信,就知道宇宙是藉神的话造成的,这样,所看见的[to blepomenon],并不是从显然之物[mê ek phainomenôn]造出来[katêrtisthai]的。”这段经文声明可见的宇宙并“不是从同样可见的(已存之物)原料造出来的,而是神圣的力量叫唤出来的。” [80] 扎索闻·佩里坎(Jaroslav Pelikan)这么说,这段经文和罗马书4:17,“明确地”教导了无中生有的创造。 [81] 摩门教学者基斯·诺曼(Keith Norman)其实误用了福尔斯特(很讽刺的,他强烈地维护圣经无中生有的创造论)对罗马书4:17的评论,宣称福尔斯特说“只能从已存之物而非虚无中才能叫唤出创造, 因为那是“逻辑上的不可能”。 [82] 然而,福尔斯特继续说,“但是神叫唤出原来不存在的东西,我们不能把” mê onta [还不存在的] 当作是onta [已经存在的]." [83] 在这之前的段落里,他也提到创造是“藉着神的话从无创有的”。 [84] 而且,哥林多后书4:6(与创世纪1:3呼应),神从黑暗中唤出了光,也是神藉着自己的话语从无创有的另一处参考。[85]
mê ek phainomenon这个词的词序在古典希腊文中是常见的,应该解释为“看不见的东西”。[86] 而ta phainomena的哲学含义是指感官经验。[87] 物质世界(tous aiônas)被描述为可见之物(to blepomenon);这比起不可见之物——也就是神的话。[88] 保罗·阿林沃斯(Paul Ellingworth)争辩说希伯来书11:3中的短语rhêmati theou——“神的话/命令”(反映诗篇33:6的思维)——与有形世界是出于无形世界的原料起“冲突”。将tois aiônas这个词解释为可见世界是更令人满意,因此就与to blepomenon为同义词。[89] 牟乐(C.F.D. Moule)说,在希伯来书11:3,“这经文听起来是指无中生有的创造,有形的出于无形的。” [90] 评论家威廉·里这么说:虽然希伯来书11:3并没有积极陈述无中生有的创造,但它消极的表达,“它否定了宇宙的创造是出于原有材料或可见之物。” [91] 里进一步断言作者坚持宇宙不是出于任何有形之物,看起来就摆脱了柏拉图或斐洛宇宙论的影响。事实上,这可能是作者有意要纠正一个在希腊文化影响下犹太教广传的倾向——用柏拉图对话篇的教义来读创世纪第一章。[92]
因此,与枚教授的断言对立的,是希伯来书11:3所陈述的一些与古典希腊创造概念完全不同的观点。提到创造,约翰福音1:3毫不含糊地表明所有的东西——也就是“物质世界”,都是藉着神的话(道)而存在。[93] 言下之意就是所有的东西(包括已存之物,如果它们也在创造的过程中,)都是通过神的代理而存在的,神是所有物质的起源。[94] 这引申出虽然道是过去式was (ên),创造却呈现出来了came to be (egeneto). [95] 雷蒙德·布朗(Raymond Brown)评论:“所以,物质世界是出于神的创造,因此是好的。” [96] 所以当经文提到神的创造,附带着就有一个包揽的性质。即使圣经的作者似乎无法准确的描述无中生有的创造理论,但是他们都有一个“自然的习惯述说他们对耶和华创造大能的全面了解。” [97]
歌罗西书1:16-17全面的述说一切都是藉着他(基督)造的,也是为他造的。创世纪1:1整体的概括“天地”是用“一切”这个片语表达。[98] 神创造了“天上和地上”的一切是与“有形的和无形的” (ta orata kai ta aorata)相呼应或平行,表明这些表达方式“包括了一切,并且没有例外”。[99] 华特(N.T. Wright)宣称“所有的东西”可翻译为“全部”。[100] 不仅如此,基督是在所有之前。言下之意是说有一个状态是当宇宙尚未存在之前基督已经存在了。就如布鲁斯 (F.F. Bruce)说的:“ ['在所有之前']这些字不仅宣称他在时间上的优先,也建议他在地位上凌驾于首。” [101] 歌罗西书1:16-17的文本提议两个正面的肯定:(a)基督的创造(将所有带进存在)和(b)祂维持着它们的生存。[102] “万有靠他而立”(1:17)着重重在他维持着“他所造的一切”。[103] 没有这样的举动,“一切都会瓦解”。[104] 从以上的讨论来看,将从无创有的理论看为纯粹的后圣经现象是一个严重的曲解,这是摩门教一向的作为。在摩门教学者所提的相关学术文献中,哪里有对创造的相关经文有严格的注释? 回应却是鸦雀无声的沉默。然而圣经数据证实神在这所有之前就存在(也就是说,有这么一个状态,只有神存在而没有其他任何东西存在),这也是从无创有理论的根据。就像三位一体的教义显然展现在经文中(尽管阿里乌教派(Arianism ) 后来兴盛了),虽然理论没有正式的形成直到特士良(Tertullian )时期。,所以从无创有的理论是符合圣经的(尽管中期柏拉图思想兴起而影响到犹太教和基督教的思想家),虽然它只在二世纪后期得到了清楚的阐述和扩大。
再者,令人好奇的是:摩门教学者到底会接受什么样的经文(甚至圣经之外的资料)来作为从无创有的明确证据。看起来,他们对文本中的任何公式,除非有“出于绝对虚无的创造”这类的字句,他们才会承认经文中有可能找到从无创有教义的明确证据。
那么,像莫特曼所说的,从无创有理论的制定“无疑是圣经所谓的‘创造’恰当的意译”。[105] 如福尔斯特指出:“藉着道从无创有或明或暗地构成了新约(有关创造)申明的根据。” [106]
除了刚刚呈献圣经从无创有理论有力的案例之外,我们必须注意的是:就算圣经证据不明确而且圣经作者在这个问题上不站出立场,摩门教的观点也不会因默认而成立。反而,他们也须要承担证明的责任。我们所面对的并非是一个非此即彼的情况(也就是,不然就接受圣经明确从无创有的教导,不然就默认摩门教为正确的观点)。一方面,摩门教徒不是拒绝,就是忽略与圣经学术界交流;另一方面,他们也没有为自己的立场发表什么显著和正面的释经证据。摩门教的观点并不会因为圣经的沉默而得以成立。所以如果圣经在这方面果真是沉默的,摩门教徒自己也应当在他们典型的控诉上保持沉默。 他们的控诉是说教父们将他们自己的教义强加在经文上。在这种情况下,摩门教徒也犯同样的过错。因此,我们应当挑战摩门教的学者们加强对圣经文本的研究,和与圣经学者的交流来呈献他们的方案。
B. 神学论据
著名的科学哲学家伊安·巴伯(Ian Barbour)曾坚定地宣告“从无创有不符合圣经的观念。” [107],反而,他认为这只是圣经正典成立后发展出来的,为了维护神的良善和祂对世界的绝对主权, 以防卫“诺斯底教派对物质所持的观念认为物质都是邪恶的或是次等神灵的产物。[108] 再者,根据巴伯的观点(也是摩门教的观点),圣经不单在神与创造的关系本质上不清楚,反而还断言,神是在已存之物上创造的:
创世纪描绘从混乱到次序的创造……从无创有的教义是后期教父们形成的,为要对抗终极的二元论或者一元泛神论来维护有神论。我们仍然须要对抗其他的哲学观点来维护有神论,但是,我们可以如此行而不须要提到一个绝对的开始。[109]
因此,从无创有并不是神学中必要的教义:“,在宗教创造观点的表达中这并不是主要关注的重点。” [110]
在上一段,我们指出——并且提供了拒绝——葛和德·枚教授论述的理由:说从无创有的教义“不是圣经文本的必要内容”。[111] 枚教授没有提供这声明的根据。确实,我们所看到的却正好相反。枚教授(和巴伯)的争论内容指出二世纪的基督教思想家想要回应诺斯底教(强调着放射式的创造)和中期柏拉图思想(强调着永恒的原存之物)理论,而创建了从无创有的教义。[112] 直到此时,都还没有一个明确的提示到底神是如何创造世界的。
这就是摩门教徒采用的推理方式。摩门教学者晓·尼布利(Hugh Nibley)说,在“教会的博士们”出现之前,我们从没听过从无创有的理论。[113] 在此之前,我们把持“创造就是一个将‘没有组织的物质’组织起来的行动(amorphos hylê),在无序中创造次序……” [114] 史蒂芬·罗宾逊(Stephen Robinson)也同样指出:“在希腊文化影响之前,犹太教里并没有从无创有的证据,在二世纪后期之前的早期基督教里也没有这种思想。” [115] 他认为从无创有的教义是在经文上添加的神学思想,罗宾逊指出安德森(B.W. Anderson)的一个有关创造的特定文章[摩门学者如丹尼尔彼得森(Daniel C. Peterson)和史蒂芬瑞克斯(Stephen D. Ricks)也这么指出。[116]
然而,罗宾逊自己的声明也不是很准确。在更充分的背景下就很清楚的看到安德森的观点是从旧约的角度——不是新约,也不是早期的教父——的观点:
在后期神学对创造含义的反思,藉着世界是从无中生有被造出来的理论,创造者的主权就更被强调了,( 马加比后书7:28,罗马书4:17;希伯来书11:3)。然而,这教导是否明确的表述在创世纪第1章或者其它旧约的章节中是值得怀疑的。[117]
我们已经处理了圣经上有关创造题材的讨论。但是对于说这个教义是神学的发明或创新的声明又该怎么处理呢?我们应当为这样的错误争辩。
学术界与爱任纽(Irenaeus)都同意,从无创有的教义是源远流长。爱任纽也争辩说世界并不与神永远共存:
但是,被造之物跟创造者的区别是明显的,什么[东西]是被这位创造者所造的。因为神自己不是被造的,也没有起始也没有结束,并一无所缺。他在存在的条件上是自给自足。但是那些被他创造的东西都获得了一个开始……他那创造一切的确实能够藉着自己的话语单独被称为神,为主宰;但是被造之物却不能应用这个称呼,也不能将那属于造物主的尊号加在自身上。[118]
后来,奥古斯丁本人直接了当地宣布是神“从虚无中创造了天地。” [119]
当然,有些基督教神学家(更不用提亚历山大的菲罗Philo of Alexandria)受到中期柏拉图思想的影响,像殉道者游斯丁(Justin Martyr),亚历山大的革利免( Clement of Alexandria), 凯萨利亚的巴色尔(Basil of Caesarea), 以及娜撒亚的贵格利(Gregory of Nyssa)都认为物质和神一样是永存的。然而,他们确实认为在某种程度上,物质是附属于、依靠着神。[120] 顺便提及摩门学者史蒂芬·瑞克斯误解了葛和德·枚对巴西里德斯(Basilides)的分析,巴西里德斯是从无创有理论在第二世纪刚呈现时的诺斯底教派思想家,当他说,“这个正统基督教(创造)的教义在根本上就可能是诺斯底教的异端。” [121] 枚教授证实巴西里德斯(并不合乎诺斯底教的作风)对这个学说的制定跟后期基督教正统神学家的兴起都是独立的发展。他的想法在他们身上“并没有留下什么广泛的影响”。[122]
尽管这些思想家无可否认的受到中期柏拉图思想强烈的影响,我们必须小心不要只是因为中期柏拉图主义的观念和经文的观念有部分的重叠,就可以模糊人们的一些观点。 布鲁斯(F.F. Bruce)提醒我们“在已存的物质上强加形式的观念起源于希腊,而非希伯来。” [123] 别忘了犹太思想最在乎的是宇宙的神,而非宇宙本身,[124] 他们在乎创造,而非虚无。[125] 旧约的作者看自然现象主要指向那位创造他们并且透过他们来彰显荣耀的神。比如,诗篇104,描述了自然世界的奇妙可畏,是这么开始的:
耶和华我的 神啊,你为至大!你以尊荣威严为衣服,
对这些作者来说,神是“宇宙的王”。[126]
我们可以再跨进一步,藉着声明旧约犹太教(也意味早期的基督教)的生理环境提供了相信从无创有的适当背景而。这种信念对希伯来人(和早期基督徒)来说一点都不陌生。为了支持这个声明,我们会提出圣经之外的许多有关犹太人和基督教的文章来证明从无创有事实上对被圣经影响过的思想并不陌生。许多人认为新旧约之间的《马加比后书》(7:28)清楚的阐明了从无创有的传统教义。在那里记载到一位母亲恳求自己的儿子宁可接受折磨,也不要放弃信仰:
孩子啊,我求你,看看天空和大地,看看其中的一切,要明白神是从虚无创造了万物[hoti ouk ex onton epoiêsen auta ho theos],而人也是同样被造的。
伯纳德·安德森(Bernhard Anderson)看到从无创有的教义就在这篇文章中阐明。[127]
葛哈德·冯·拉德(Gerhard von Rad)坚持,“从无创有这个理念首先出现”在这篇文章。[128] 根据克劳斯·韦斯特曼犹太人对创造的理解是“这个整个世界只能从它开始存在的背景中来理解,” [129]。根据克劳斯韦斯特曼,这个说法离马加比后书7:28确实在陈述从无创有的假设距离并不远。
在这个时期可能没有比库姆兰社区的著作更能展示给我们看到从无创有的理解。例如,我们在“社区的规则The Rule of the Community”之中,可以看到从无创有的引用(1QS III.15-16):全知的神展现出现在和将来的所有。[130] 在这一切所有存在之前,祂对它们有周详的计划,当它们呈现时,它们会根据神荣耀的设计,照着祂的指示,没有任何更改的完成它们的工作,。[131]
在同一经卷(1 QS XI.11)中,还有另外一处引用与此呼应神绝对创造观念:
藉着他的知识,万物都被立定,所有存在之物,祂按照祂的衡量建立,
没有任何工作是在祂之外成就的。
库姆兰的记载格外重视神绝对的主权:神创造是为了祂自己的荣耀,宇宙是从祂开始的。“(没有你)一事无成,没有你的旨意, 一无所知“。(1 QH IX.8)神不仅创造了所有物质,也创造了不可见的灵界:“你朔造了每个灵” (1QH IX.20-31)。还有一处(1QH IX)更加补充说明这些主题:
在你智慧的知识中,你立定了他们(就是人类)的途径,
在他们存在之前
(在你的许可下)万物俱生,
没有你,万象皆空(19-20)。
神创造的行动是藉着祂的智慧(和能力)——不是藉着已存之物。当读到“歌颂创造者的诗篇” (11 Q5 XXVI.9-15)时,我们看到神“用祂内心的知识设立了黎明”;祂“用祂的能力设立了大地”,也“用祂的智慧设立了世界”,“藉着祂的知识,天地都被立定。” [132] 再一次,我们被指向从无创有的教义,而非背道而行。
著名的第一世纪拉比,迦玛列(Gamaliel),似乎在他的想法中也反映了这个创造的概念。有一位哲学家向他挑战:“你的神确实是一位伟大的艺术家,但是祂有优秀的原料(未成形的空间/虚空,黑暗,水,风,和深渊)来帮助祂。” 迦玛列把不得这位哲学家的灵崩溃(或“放弃生灵”),[133] 宣称,“这一切所有都刻意的描述为神所造之物(而非之前就存在的)。” [134]
《黑马牧人书(The Shepherd of Hermas)》的第一条诫命就是要相信神“从虚无中创造了”万物。[135] 鉴于此参考,丹尼斯·卡若儿(Denis Carroll)的评论:这是基督教文学上第一个从无创有的典故。[136]
犹太伪经《约瑟和安赛尼斯(Joseph and Aseneth)》,它的年代可以追溯到公元前二世纪到公元二世纪,其中包含了一篇似乎也隐喻着从无创有的文章。安赛尼斯将她的偶像扔出窗外,披上麻衣一星期,向约瑟的神倾诉:
世世代代的神啊,
您创造了所有(一切),并将生命赐给(他们),
您也将生命的气息授予您的整个创造,
您将看不见的(东西)带进光中,
使不存在和无形无体的成为现存之物与现有的形象,
您将天地举起,将它立在穹苍之上负在风的背上……
因为您,主啊,开口说话,就将他们带入生命
因为您的道,主啊,就是您所有创造物的生命。(12:1-3)
《以诺二书Second Enoch》,写于公元一世纪后期,也有几处提到从无创有的教义:“我命令……可见之物当从隐形中呈现出来” (25:1下.);“使无形的成为真实可见的。” (26:1)
写于公元一百年左右的《所罗门之歌Odes of Solomon》(原著很可能是叙利亚语)[137] 表达无中生有的创造:
除神以外什么都不存在,
因为他在万物之先。
世界是藉着他的话语立定,
也是藉着他心里的意念形成。(16:18-19)
在第二世纪的早期,《巴鲁后书Second Baruch》的作者写下了这些字句:“哦,神啊……藉着话语立定了穹苍,……在一切都还不存在的时候换出了宇宙的开始。” (21:4) 弗兰克·詹姆斯·莫菲(Frank James Murphy)在他评论巴鲁后书的论文里说,这里表达了无中生有的创造,表示现在可见的世界并非永恒的,而是有一个开始。[138]
最后一个例子出于《使徒宪章Apostolic Constitutions》,最早可能是在公元二世纪中期写成的,其中反应了无中生有的创造。那“唯一的真神”“在一切被造之前就有的……是唯一没有渊源,没有开始的。”“万有”都是通过永恒的神而造的。他“在本质上是首先的,在个体上是唯一的”。[139]
最后一点:摩门学者 [140] 不时的会引用一些资源如约拿单·戈尔茨坦(Jonathan Goldstein)的陈述,“中世纪犹太思想家仍然认为创世纪中的创造可被解释为神是用无形状的已存之物来创造的。” [141] 这根本是错误的,也是对注释家的误解。反而,所有中世纪的犹太注释家都一致地遵循莱希(Rashi) [艾奔·以斯拉(Ibn Ezra), 拉姆Rashbam, 巴姆Rambam, 等] ,假定创造是从无创有的。这怎么说呢?比如,因为在创世纪1:2提到水已经存在了,他们就假定这不可能是绝对的创造(就是,出于虚无的创造)。也就是说,创世纪1:1提到的并不是神首先创造的东西。有趣的是,据我们所知,莱希是第一个将“起初”(berêshît)以主观理念解读为(“开始”)而非绝对的(“起初”)[142] 绝对的创造在以前已经发生了,在这儿,神只是在用自己所造的原料来继续创造。并不是语法的理由而是题材(如:水)导致莱希用主观理念来解读起初 berêshît ,艾奔·以斯拉跟着莱希的主观理念,相信神提前已经先造了水,祂然后再用水来创造宇宙中特定的点点滴滴。旧约学者约翰·萨翰墨(John Sailhamer)说:
莱希和艾奔·以斯拉好像都不是因语法上的理由而摒弃了传统的观点把起初[berêshît当作绝对的],他们也不认为主观理念的读法是更好的。而是,他们相信这是唯一的读法可以解决第1节对第2节的“水”所无法解释的困难。事实上,艾奔·以斯拉警告他的读者,不要为动词之前所出现的建构感到讶异,这只表明,他自己有困难接受在限定动词之前的起初berêshît是一个主观理念的建构,他猜测他的读者也会有同样的反应。
莱希和艾奔·以斯拉都提供了例子来展示把一个限定动词放在构建名词的后面是允许的。他们对1:1的解读在实际上和性质上的自卫都显明了他们对这种解读的不安。[143]
因此,这些中世纪犹太释经家并不相信神是用之前就永恒存在的物质来创造的。反而,按照他们的想法,神就是一切有限物质的起源,包括在创世纪第一章中提及他所用的创造材料。正如福尔斯特的评论,“在后期犹太教中,拉比Rabb[inic]和伪经pseudepigr[aphal]的作品中,都清楚地阐明了神独自藉着道(话语)创造了世界,也就是说,他从虚无中唤出了世界的存在,” [144] 他甚至更进一步的说“已存之物的观念”在拉比文学中是“陌生的”。[145] 所以,最终我们看到写马加比后书,死海古卷(Dead Sea Scrolls),后期犹太翻译中的七十士圣经,闪米特塔庫姆译本(Semitic Targums),还有很多其它中世纪犹太解经书,等等作品的作者笔下展现着显著的连贯性。
因此,神绝对的创造了一切都理所当然地被无数相关的独立文献所认定。摩门教对创造的观点,可能最类似进程神学(process theology),[146] 是不能持久的。
所以,即使普遍听到基督教神学受希腊影响的说法——断言有“全盘采纳希腊哲学形而上学的现象,” [147] 显然基督教的教义在这个时段并没有受希腊思想的影响。讽刺的是,摩门教对创造的概念反而更明显地反映着希腊思想——准确地说,是新柏拉图哲学思想转化的形式。是摩门教徒随从着柏拉图在蒂迈欧篇(Timaeus)中的角色所说的:世界的创造和起源真正的含意......因此也发现了整个可见的天体并非在止息状态,乃是以不规则和无序的方式在移动,从无序中[神]带出了秩序,认为这在各方面都比无序更好。[148]
就此总结一下:我们试图表明摩门教相信神藉着永恒的已存之物,从无组织的混乱中创造了世界,这观点并不符合圣经文本,并且他们所引用的文献持续未能掌握这一点。反而,我们发现,从无创有教义忠实的分解圣经的教导。实在难以想象一个没被希腊化的希伯来人怎么可能从圣经文本中下这种结论,说神和一些无序的物质(或混乱的)共存于永恒。况且,可以证明从无创有的教义并不是由第二世纪的基督徒神学家们无中生有地捏造出来的;这个观念在此之前分别被犹太教和基督教作者把持着。摩门教的观点反而与圣经不相符。
II. 从无创有的哲学及科学支持
关于从无创有
教父们为了他们对从无创有圣经教义的承诺,就正面的与希腊物质永恒的概念起了冲突。对柏拉图和亚里士多德这两位希腊最伟大的思想家而言,创造并不是神从虚无之中带出这个世界的存在,而是祂强加形体于原始的无形之物而在混乱无序中塑造出了一个宇宙。[149] 正如我们所看到的,尽管希腊哲学思想带来了巨大的压力,教父们,除了少数例外,仍然拒绝为这希腊观念而放弃希伯来人对创造的理解。因为亚里士多德不仅声明,并且也争论说世界是永恒存在的,基督教神学家们不能只满足于引用圣经证据来指证这一点是错的,并且还要针对他们相对的范例和希腊思想家们参与争辩。在伊斯兰教成立之前,为从无创有争斗的最后一位勇士是约翰·菲力诺斯(John Philoponus )(卒于约公元580年),他是来自亚历山大的亚里士多德学派评审家,在他的著作《反对亚里士多德Against Aristotle》以及《就世界的永恒性反对普罗克洛斯——On the Eternity of the World against Proclus》里面,他根据永恒过去的不可能性、发起了为无中生有之创造争辩的传统。这个传统之后被中世纪穆斯林和犹太神学家发扬,然后又传回到基督教学术性神学中。任何拒绝从无创有教义的人都不能不负责任的忽视这个传统,而须实质上回应如安萨里(al-Ghazali), 萨蒂亚·本·贾昂(Saadia ben Gaon), 博纳专(Bonaventure) 这等思想家,和他们当今的承传者。
在下文中,我们将列举两个独立演绎论证以及两个独立的归纳论证,为了了结宇宙有一个绝对的开始,和考虑摩门教对这些论证的回应。我们找不到任何论证,无论是归纳还是演绎,能支持无限过去的观念,我们也找不到摩门教思想家支持这观念的论据
A. 演绎论证。
1. 实际无限的不可能论证
我们要考虑的第一个论证可以归结如下:
1. 一个实际的无限不可能存在
2. 事件在时间上无限的倒退是一个实际的无限。
3. 因此,事件在时间上无限的倒退不可能存在。
据说这种论证已被格奥尔·康托尔(Georg Cantor)对实际无限的研究及相继开发的集合理论推翻了。但这种说法完全曲解了康托尔的系统和现代集合论的本质。因为这论证与这两者之中的原则并没有冲突。原因是这样的:康托尔的系统和集合论都只是宇宙的论述,是根据一定采纳的公理和规则成立的数学系统,而我们的论证关注的是真实的世界。我们应当指出的是,虽然实际的无限可能是假设宇宙的一个有效和一致概念的论述,它不能被转换到现实世界中,因如此行就会将这个世界涉入违反直觉的荒谬。表明这说法的最好方法就是用具体的例子来显明当一个实际的无限应用在真实世界时会导致的各种荒谬
举个例子来说, 希尔伯特旅馆是一位伟大的德国数学家,大卫·希尔伯特(David Hilbert)的心灵产物。让我们先想象一个旅馆有有限数量的房间。假设所有的房间都住满了。当一个新客人来想开一间房间,老板道歉说,“对不起,所有的房间都满了。”然后让我们继续想象一个有无限数量房间的旅馆,再假设,所有的房间也都住满了,在整个无限数量房间的旅馆里,一间空房间都没有。此时假设有一个新客人来了,要开一间房间,老板说“没问题!”,他就把一号房的客人挪到二号房,二号房里的客人挪到三号房,三号房的客人挪到四号房,就这样继续挪下去,直到无限。由于这样挪动的结果,一号房就空出来了,新客人感激的住进来了。但请回想,在他抵达之前,所有的房间都满了!更奇怪的是,按照数学家的算法,现在旅馆里的人数比原先并没有加增:因为数量都是无限的。但是这怎么可能呢?老板刚刚才登记了一位新客人并把钥匙给了他——那旅馆里的人数怎么可能跟原先的一样呢? 然而情况变得更奇怪。假设有无限数量的新客人来到前台要求开房,老板说“当然!当然!”。然后把一号房的客人挪到二号房,二号房的客人挪到四号房,三号房的客人挪到六号房,直到无限,总是把客人挪到比原来房间的号码大两倍的房间里。因为任何自然数乘以二总是等于偶数,所以所有的客人都会住在偶数号码的房间里。这样,所有的奇数号房间就都空出来了,新来的无限数量的客人都有房间住了。但是,在这些客人抵达之前,所有房间都是满的!并且,更奇怪的是,这些无限数目的客人住进来之后,虽然比起原来多了许多新客人,旅馆里的人数并没有变化。事实上,老板可以无限的重复这种操作,然而旅馆里的人数比起原先却一个都没有增加。
然而希尔伯特旅馆的例子比这位德国数学家的想象更奇怪。因为,假设有些客人开始退房,比如说一号房的客人离开了,那么旅馆里的人数因此减少了吗?根据数学家,并没有!假设一号房,三号房,五号房……的客人都退房,也就是说无限数量的客人都离开了旅馆,但是根据数学家,旅馆里的人数并没有减少!我们可以假设每两个客人中就有一个退房离开,并且这样的情形重复无限次数,而旅馆里的人数却永远不会减少。现在假设老板不喜欢旅馆是半空的(看上去好像生意不好)。没关系,就像刚才腾房间时的操作一样,只是把操作掉反过来,他就能把半空的旅馆又变成一个客满的旅馆了。有人可能会想,运用这种操作,老板总是可以维持这个神奇的旅馆永远客满。然而这是一个错误的想法。因为,假设住四,五,六号房的客人退房了。这简单的举动几乎就把旅馆洗空了,客人登记表上就会减少到只剩下三个名字,无限就会变成有限。然而,这次退房客人的数量就跟一号,三号,五号房的客人退房的数量一样,这仍然是事实:。谁能相信这种旅馆可能存在现实里?
希尔伯特旅馆是荒谬的。因这旅馆的例证并没有牵扯到任何东西,像上述的种种荒谬证明了一个实际无限的数量一般是不可能存在现实中。一旦我们承认实际无限存在的可能性,我们就没办法避免类似的荒谬。外行人有时反映像希尔伯特旅馆这类的荒谬,说我们其实并不理解无限的本质,以致造成了这类的荒谬。但是,这种态度基本上是错误的。无限集合理论是一个已被高度发展和充分理解的数学分枝,我们之所以能明确的观察到这类荒谬所带出的结果,正是因为我们确实了解一个集合包含实际无限数量成员的概念。
第二个前提指出一系列事件在时间上无限地倒退是实际上的无限。第二个前提断言,如果在时间上系列或序列的改变是无限的,那么这些考虑中的事件集合起来就构成了实际的无限。这一点似乎够明显的了,因为如果有一个由无数事件组成的系列一直延伸到过去,那么实际无限数量的事件就确实发生过。因为这系列的过去事件确实是无限的,所有实际无限所涉及到现实存在的荒谬论也都对证。
因此我们可以总结:在时间上无限倒退的事件不可能存在,也就是说,时间上倒退的事件是有限的。既然时间上倒退的事件是有限的,那么宇宙的存在就有一个开始。
摩门哲学家几乎没有意识到这个论据。布莱克·奥斯特(Blake Ostler),一位从无创有坚定的批评者,就是其中之一。他认为“如果这个理论,或任何相关的变化版本是合理的,那么……摩门教所制定的某些有神理论就缺乏一致性。” 然而奥斯特仍然认为这论据不合理,他断言:
康托尔以数学家的资格已优雅地显示了推理的错误,不是所有的无限集合都是相等的。康托尔嘱咐我们来考虑两个无限但又不相等的集合,所有序数的集合和所有偶数的集合。无限集合不相等的相干性可以藉着把每个集合的成员一对一的配对在一起。虽然两个集合都是无限的,偶数集合却只有序数集合的一半。[150]
然而,这分析有严重的错误。确实,当考虑到不可数的集合时,在康托尔的集合理论里,无限集合是大小不同的;然而,可数的无限集合却都是同样大小。因此,偶数集合和序数集合的基数是相同的,阿列夫零aleph-null,也就是说,它们都有相同数量的成员,或说它们的大小相同,虽然{1, 2, 3, . . .}集合除了有{2, 4, 6, . . .}集合所含有的所有成员,加上另外无限数量的成员。奥斯特错误的断言第二个集合只有第一个集合“的一半大”就自己承担了实际无限矛盾性质的证明。因此,奥斯特说如果我们有无限数量的棒球卡片,当我们送走了十万张之后,我们的卡片就少了,即使我们仍有无限数量的卡片只是数字变小了,[151] 他彻底的错了,因为两个集合都能以一对一的配搭在自然数的集合上。为了避免牵扯到减去无限量的矛盾,超限算术干脆禁止这种菲亚特fiat式的逆算法——但是如果实际无限确实可能存在的话,我们是无法阻止棒球迷分送出他部分的棒球卡片!
奥斯特也抗议说,如果无限集合的数学理论在逻辑上有一致性,那么实际无限必定是可能的。“如果这概念在逻辑上有一致性,那么就有一个可以达到实际无限的可能世界。” [152] 但是,这种反对将严密的逻辑可能性和形而上学的可能性熔接在一起。这个论点的支持者不须要否认,即使在它的公理和定例上,康托尔集合理论的内涵是一致的,但那并没有说实际的无限是否在形而上学是可能的,也就是说,是否可能有一个世界包含着实际的无限。后面的问题是一个形而上学的问题,不能根据一个系统不服在严密逻辑的不一致性下所做的答复。
除了这些在误解下的反对之外,我们也没看到摩门教对过去有限性的第一个论点做出任何的反驳。因此,我们有充分理由认为过去的时间序列,物理事件都不是没有开始的。
2. 不可能连续形成实际无限的论据
第二个演绎论证可以配制如下:
1. 事件的时间序列是一个藉着连续叠加而形成的集合。
2. 藉着连续叠加而形成的集合不可能是实际的无限。
3. 因此,事件的时间序列不可能是实际的无限。
这里我们并不在假设实际无限不能存在。即使实际无限存在,事件的时间序列不该是如此的,因为实际无限不能像事件的时间序列一样可藉着连续叠加的方式形成。
第一个前提似乎很明显。在任何一个时间点之前所发生的事件不是一个所有成员都同时共存的集合。反而它是一个按照顺序或连续实例化的累积,一件事接着另一件事发生。过去连续发生的事件并不是一个连续体无时态的存在着,它所有的成员都是同等的真实。这事件的时间序列反而是藉着连续叠加而形成的累积。
第二个前提断言藉着连续叠加而形成的集合不可能是实际的无限。有时这被描述为横越无限的不可能性。为了使我们“到达”今天,存在已经穿越了所谓的无限数量的过去事件。[153] 但是在眼前事件发生之前,紧接它之前的事件必须先发生,而在那事件发生之前,紧接它之前的事件又必须先发生,并如此往复循例。就没有任何事件可能发生,因为在它发生之前总有另一件事件必须要先发生。因此,如果过去事件的序列没有一个开始,眼前的事件也就不可能发生,这是荒谬的!唯一使实际无限可能在现实世界中存在的方法只有在现实中一次的实例化,落实在一个时刻。如罗素(Russell)所说的:“无限级的类别是由它成员定义的属性一次性的授予,以致不会有任何的问题涉及它的‘完整性’或‘连续合成性’。” [154]
如果过去事件的序列是实际的无限,那么这些事件序列的顺序就会加剧实际无限真正存在的荒谬。举例而言:如果康托尔的系统是对现实的描述,那么到目前为止所发生事件的数量不会大于过去任何一个时间点所发生事件的数量。这导致出玄妙的结论。试想木星和地球从永恒的过去一直都绕着太阳公转,木星每转一圈,地球就转十二圈。如果过去事件的顺序是无限的话,那么哪个星球完成了最多的圈数呢?根据康托尔的说法,如果他的系统是对现实的描述,那么绕圈的数量会是一样的,因为它们都可以一一的对应!但这简直是不可思议的,因为木星每转一圈,地球就转了十二圈,它们公转的时间越长,这数字的差异就越大。
因此,我们可以下这样的结论,通过连续加增而形成的集合不能是实际的无限。由于事件的时间序列是由连续加增而形成的累积,我们这么结论:因此事件的时间序列不能是一个实际的无限。当然,这也就是说,过去物理事件的时间序列有一个开始。
奥斯特对这个论点的控诉是“像芝诺的悖论 (Zeno's paradoxes)般卖弄手脚的把戏,因为虽然一个棒球必须经过无限数量的中间点才能到达捕手的手套中,然而棒球终究还是到达了手套。” [155] 他因此没有注意到两处关键的不类比,一个无限的过去和芝诺的悖论:在芝诺的思想实验中间段是潜在的和不相等的,但在一个无限过去的案例上,间段是实在的和相等的。奥斯特说棒球要经过无限数量的中间点才能到达捕手的手套中,这种说法是在乞题,因为这已经假定了整个间段是由无限数量的点所组成的,而芝诺的对手,如亚里士多德,却把这条线在我们的概念上还没作出任何分隔之前视为整体。此外,奇诺的间隔,是不相等的,加起来是一段有限的距离,而无限过去的间隔加起来是无限的距离。因此,我们怎能经过无限数量相等的,实际的间段来达到我们目前的位置,这一点就令人费解了。
奥斯特还指控说这个论点犯了合成謬误,因为它推断由于过去发生事件的数量是无限的,一定有一个“第无限个”事件发生在过去的某时。相形之下,“相信宇宙是无限老的人并不认为在无限数量的天数之前有这么一天是叫第无限天。” [156] 然而,从我们对这个论点的分析,奥斯特的指控应该很明显就能看出是没有根据的。这个论点没有一个版本是以合成来理论。何况,这个论点的大部分版本都假设在无限过去发生过的每件特定事件都能从现在有限的推算回去,因此,就不可能有第无限件事件的说法。
终于,奥斯特提出了一个无限老迈宇宙可能性的积极论点:
好像无论一个人回到多远的特定过去时刻,在逻辑上很可能世界已经在这时刻就存在了。但是,在这种世界可能存在的时刻序列或集合有多大呢?数量当然可能是没有止境或无限的。但是,如果世界可能存在的时刻是一个无限的集合,那么顺理成章的就可以合理的断言世界是无限的老迈。[157]
这里的想法似乎是说,我们在时间上倒退到有限过去的某一点tn,然后问,宇宙可不可能在比这更早的时刻tn-1就已经存在了呢?答案是在每一个时刻tn,我们都可以想象宇宙就已经存在某个可能世界里的tn-1时刻了。到目前为止这推论还进行得不错,然而这又怎么能接着说无限数量的时刻存在某个可能世界里的tn之前呢?奥斯特认为,因为宇宙数量是无限的,而这些宇宙都有越来越长久的有限过去,因此,就有一个可能的世界是拥有无限的过去。这在逻辑上和推理上都是错误的,不能因为我们能够无限度地数越来越大的有限数字,那么第无限个数字就一定存在。奥斯特也很讽刺的落入他自己错误的陷阱,用以上的论点来反对现今的论点。用他自己的话来说:“就像是说,除非有‘第无限个’整数,不然就不能说整数的数目是无限的——这显然是错误的。” [158] 因此,他对无限过去可能存在积极的争论是枉然的。
B.归纳的论据
1. 宇宙的膨胀
1917年,阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦(Albert Einstein)在他新发现的重力理论上做了一个宇宙学的应用——广义相对论。在这过程中他假定宇宙是均匀和各向同性的,并且处于在一个稳定的状态中,具有恒定的平均质量密度,和空间中的常曲率。然而,令他懊恼的是,他发现广义相对论并不允许这种宇宙模式,除非他加在他的引力场方程式上某些“蒙混因素”L来抗衡物质的引力作用,以确保一个静态的宇宙。不幸的是,爱因斯坦的静态宇宙是平衡在剃刀的刀锋上,稍有一点扰乱都会导致宇宙不然就内爆,不然就扩张。俄罗斯数学家亚历山大·弗雷德曼(Alexander Friedman)以及比利时天文学家乔治斯·勒梅特(Georges Lemaitre)认真的采纳爱因斯坦模型中的这个特点,分别的为引力场方程式制定了二十世纪二十年代的解决方案,预测一个正在膨胀的宇宙。
1929年,天文学家爱德温·哈勃(Edwin Hubble)表明,来自遥远星系的光线有光谱的红移现象,这是所有测量星系的共同特征,并且红移程度跟它们离地球的距离成正比。红移现象被视为一个多普勒效应,反映在视线上光源的退行运动。令人难以置信的是,哈勃所发现的正是宇宙的各向同性膨胀现象,是弗雷德曼和勒梅特根据爱因斯坦广义相对论所预测的。
按照弗雷德曼—勒梅特的模型,时间越久,星系之间的距离就越大。很重要的一点是要明白,这模型是根据广义相对论的理论,它并没有描述宇宙的物质成分膨胀到一个原本就存在,空无一物的牛顿空间,而是描述了空间本身的膨胀。由宇宙的物质和能量所组成的宇宙流体, 其中的理想粒子在空间上被设为静止的,但是在太空本身的膨胀或延伸里,它们彼此的距离就越来越远,就好像在气球表面粘上的扣子会在气球膨胀时越离越远一样。宇宙越膨胀,密度就越低。这里包含着一个惊人的暗示,就是如果将膨胀掉转,并随着时光的倒流来推断,宇宙的密度就越来越高, 一直到有限过去的某一时刻就达到“无限密度”的状态 [159]。这状态代表着一个奇点, 在这点上的时空曲率,随着温度,压力,密度都成了无限。因此就构成了时空本身的一个边缘,或界限。 达维斯(P. C. W. Davies)这么说:
如果我们将这个预测推向极限,就会达到宇宙中所有的距离缩小到零的一个点。最初的宇宙奇点因此就形成了宇宙过去时态的极端。在这个极端里,我们无法在物理上甚至时空的概念上继续推理。因着这个原因许多宇宙学家认为起初的奇点就是宇宙的开始。从这个观点来看,大爆炸就代表了创造的事件;不仅宇宙中所有的物质及能量的创造,也包括时空本身的创造。[160]
“大爆炸”这个词因此就有误导的可能性,因为膨胀是无法从外面想像的(大爆炸没有“外面”,也没有“之前”的角度)。
标准的大爆炸模型,就是弗雷德曼—勒梅德模型后来的称呼,因此描述一个并非有永恒过去的宇宙,而是在有限时段之前应运而生的。并且——这一点值得强调——它所假设的是一个绝对无中生有的起点。因为不仅是物质、能量,而且时间空间本身,都是在宇宙起初的奇点开始存在。如巴罗(Barrow)和提匹勒(Tipler)对这点的强调,“时间和空间都在这奇点进入存在;在奇点之前根本就没有任何东西存在,因此,如果宇宙起源于这样的一个奇点,我们就确实有无中生有的创造。[161]. ” 这种结论极度的困扰仔细思考它的人。因为,为什么宇宙会存在而非万事皆空的问题无法被抑制住。大爆炸现象不可能有自然或物理的原因,因为,用昆汀·史密斯(Quentin Smith)的话来说,“这是属于宇宙奇点概念的解析,它并不是先前物理事故的结果。奇点的定义...限定了时空的流形不能延伸超过奇点……这就排除了奇点是先前某些自然现象所产生的结果的概念。” [162] 亚瑟·艾丁顿爵士(Sir Arthur Eddington),盘算着宇宙的开端,认为宇宙的膨胀是如此荒谬和不可思议的理论,“我甚至感到愤慨竟然还会有人相信它,——除了我自己之外。” [163] 他最终无奈地下了这结论,“这种开始似乎呈现了不可克服的困难,除非我们同意坦白的把它看为超自然的现象。[164] ”标准的大爆炸宇宙观因此展示出摩门神学家基斯·诺曼所谓的“对于摩门教宇宙观的严峻挑战”。[165] 他指出,标准模型听上去就像是“从无创有的正统教导,”
理论物理学家和基督徒哲学家对什么存在宇宙之前的问题都给出相同的答案:“什么都没有。”……在时间和空间都不存在的情况下“开始之前”是没意义的。宇宙,因此‘确实是从真正的虚无中创造出来的’。[166]
鉴于摩门教的承诺:物质有永恒性,以及神处在时空之内,又不超越自然律,诺曼承认“对创造和物质实体性的主题,现代物理学好像与传统基督教相称,反而摩门教的教义相形之下就更像是十九世纪的遗物了。” [167]
2.宇宙的热力学性质
如果这还不够的话,还有第二个支持宇宙起源的归纳论据,是建立在热力学的证据上。根据热力学第二定律,发生在封闭系统里的进程总是朝着平衡的状态进行。我们现在对这定律感兴趣是要看当它应用在宇宙整体上会怎么样。宇宙,从自然主义的角度来看,是一个巨大的封闭系统,因为它包含了一切,而没有东西在系统外面。这似乎就暗示,只要有足够的时间,宇宙和其中所有的进程都会耗尽,整个宇宙将会达到平衡。这就是所谓宇宙的热寂。一旦宇宙达到了那个状态,所有的变化都不再可能了。宇宙就死了。
宇宙可能出现的热寂有两种。如果宇宙最终重新收缩的话,它将会“热”沉寂。当它收缩时,星球会获得能量,使他们燃烧更迅速,致使它们最终爆炸或蒸发。当宇宙中的一切越来越接近,黑洞开始吞噬它附近的一切,并开始自己凝聚。最后,所有的黑洞都会合并成一个巨大的黑洞,伸展到宇宙的每个角落,从此宇宙将再也不会重新出现了。
但是假设更有可能宇宙会继续不断的膨胀。在这种情况下, 它的死将会是冷的,当星系将它们的气体变成恒星,而恒星燃尽。在1030年后宇宙将会有百分之九十的死恒星,百分之九是由星系崩溃造成的超大黑洞,百分之一是原子物质,主要是氢。基本粒子物理学表明, 此后质子将会瓦解为电子和正电子,致使太空充满稀薄的气体, 薄到一个地步,电子和正电子之间的距离将会大到像现在星系的大小。有的科学家相信,10100年后,黑洞本身会因量子力学所预测的奇怪效应而消散。与黑洞关联的质量和能量将会扭曲空间而造成一个所谓的“隧道”或“虫孔”,通过它质量和能量就会被排到太空的另一个区域。当黑洞的质量减小,它的能量消耗加速,以致最后都消散成为辐射和基本粒子。终于所有的黑洞都会完全蒸发,并且在不断膨胀宇宙中的所有物质都会被削减成由基本粒子和辐射组成的稀薄气体。平衡将贯穿一切,整个宇宙将会达到最终的状态,任何变化都不再可能了。
现在的问题是:如果在充分的时间下,宇宙必然会达到热寂,为什么现在不就已经达到热寂了呢?如果宇宙一向永恒的存在着,如果宇宙没有开始存在,那么它现在就应该已经达到了平衡的状态。就像是滴答作响的钟,它早就应当耗尽而停止了。既然宇宙到现在还没有停止,那就表示,藉着一位百思不得其解的科学家字句,“宇宙必定是以某种的方式上了链。” [168]
有些人为了避免这样的结论而试着采用一个往复振荡永远不会达到最终平衡状态的宇宙模型。但即使先不看这个模型的物理和观测所引起的问题,这模型的热力学性质也揭示了宇宙的开始,正是这模型的支持者想要回避的结论。因为熵在这个模型里随着周期循环增加,在每个逐次的周期都产生更大和更长的振荡。因此,如果将时光倒流来追溯振荡的话,它们就会越来越小,一直达到那最初,最小的振荡。因此,泽尔维奇(Zeldovich)和诺维科夫(Novikov)下了这样的结论,“多周期模型有一个无限的将来,但是只有有限的过去。” [169] 事实上,天文学家约瑟·思科(Joseph Silk)根据现有熵的水平估计,宇宙不可能超过多于一百次先前的振荡。[170]
就算我们避开了这个难题,有着永恒过去振荡的宇宙也需要无比精确的调整起始条件,以便持续无限次数的连续反弹。宇宙从一个单一的,无限长的收缩反弹,如果熵在收缩阶段增加的话,这现象在热力学上是很难维持的,并且也不符合我们在膨胀阶段的最初低熵条件。用熵在收缩阶段减质的假设来逃避这种问题,我们就必需假设在永恒演化的宇宙生命中,那反弹的时刻会有一个不可理喻的低熵状态。这种在膨胀开始时的低熵条件可以更令人信服的解释为某种奇点的呈现,或某类量子的创造事件。
因此,无论是采用重新收缩的模型,不断膨胀的模型还是振荡的模型,热力学都引申宇宙有一个开端。根据P. C. W. 达维斯的看法,宇宙必然是在一个有限时段之前被造的,现在正处在衰减的过程中。达维斯说,在创造之前,宇宙根本就不存在。因此,他的结论是,我们必须承认宇宙的能量是在创造时以某种方式“注入”而成为起始的条件,虽然我们并不见得喜欢这么接受它。。[171]
我们面对的选择
在过去的一个世纪中,物理宇宙学的进步已经将认真查考实验证据的摩门科学家置于一个格外困难的境地。因为,如果为了解释宇宙从无创有的起源,我们假设某种负责宇宙起源的因素,这种超然通俗的个体为空间和时间的起因,必须超越空间和时间,因此不被时间和空间限制,至少不被宇宙所包含。这超然的起因必须因此是不改变的和非物质的,因为无时限蕴含着不更变,不更变又蕴含着非物质性。这种起因必须是没有开始的,自己发生的,至少是不需要任何先决条件。这个体必须有意想不到的能力,因为它无中生有的创造了宇宙。所有这些都符合传统有神论,却与摩门教一般对神的概念有明显的矛盾。
大卫·柏利(David Bailey),一位美国国家航空和宇宙航行局的科学家及摩门教徒,承认大爆炸理论“目前普遍被公认为宇宙起始的正确描述”,他还说,“支持这理论的证据已经提升到一个地步任何人试图建立在科学上站得住脚的神学观念都必须认真地面对它们。” [172] 柏利身为一位摩门教徒的科学家希望有一套神学理论是科学可以支持的;但是,据柏利,摩门教对神的观念是一个无始进展中的有限物质产物,正与大爆炸理论迎头相撞。
摩门教对神的概念假定神是一个真实、有形的个体,与自然法则共存于宇宙中。可能在其他基督较教派心目中最极端的摩门教‘异端’就是永恒进展定律(‘人的如今正如神的曾经,神的如今正如人将成为的’)。这一教义首先由约瑟·史密斯(Joseph Smith)阐明,后来得到其他摩门教教主的发扬,如今已成为他们信仰的基本教义。[173]
可惜,他承认,
我们宇宙中的所有起源于大约在一百五十亿年前的一个大爆炸, 这种说法给摩门教的神学带来了一些问题。存在时空中的神应当驻留在可观测的宇宙范围内。在这种情况下,神在字面和绝对的意义上并不是永恒的,而是在大爆炸后才出现的。
摩门教派传统上对永恒元素(D & C 93:33)的观念若从字面上来理解认为物质是永恒存在的,不能被创造也不能被毁灭,也会遇到了同样难题。质量转化为能量,物质的嬗变转化都都是源远流长的物理现象。此外,一切物质都起源于大爆炸。[174]
大爆炸代表了一切物质和能量的起点,包括我们所了解的物理空间和时间本身。因此,认为物质/能量是永恒的,或者说神是一个无始进程的产物,这与大爆炸理论无法和解。大爆炸理论对摩门教神学带来的难题格外严峻,不仅是因为大爆炸理论支持无中生有的创造论,还因为摩门教对神的观点,认为神是存在宇宙中有形实体的延伸,若接在大爆炸宇宙论上,那么神本身(或者说神的起源)就必须也要从无中生有而来的。因此,大爆炸宇宙论是一个名副其实的利刃搁在摩门教神学的喉咙上。
事实上,就算宇宙没有一个奇异的起点,摩门教对神的观点也无法与当代的宇宙进化论和解。因为摩门教神学家将神建构成一个物质实体,完全包含在宇宙之内。从时光倒流的推断中宇宙的膨胀构成了普遍的、重力的自我倒塌,正合乎霍金---潘罗斯为确定黑洞行为所发表的奇点定理的约束。几乎任何天体物理学的教科书都包含了对不幸的太空旅客无意穿越了黑洞边界经历的生动描述。当他无法抗拒地被卷入漩涡,在他终于要崩溃成一条不可分辨的纤维之前,潮汐力就会将他的身体撕成碎片。我们若向着大爆炸的方向往回推断的话,同样的命运也在等待着摩门教的神。还有一种理论,说从永恒进程而来的神仙相互厮混,这种观念比科学的胡说更糟糕——它是奥林匹亚规模的童话故事。
宇宙起源的热力学证据同样将摩门教科学家摆在一个尴尬的境地。一方面,他们意识到现今热力学的不平衡可以引申到有限的过去,有时甚至将这些观点作为自然神学的论据。例如,犹他大学的化学教授亨利·艾伦(Henry Eyring),在解释宇宙的热寂是无法避免的观点之后,提出了这样的问题:“宇宙是怎么上的链?”并将起初能量注入归因于创造者。[175] 但是虽然这样的结论与正统基督教对神的观念一致,认为神是非物质,超然的个体,从无中生有的创造了宇宙, 它却与传统摩门教对神的理解分歧,后者认为神是有时限的,包含在宇宙之内的物质形体。摩门教观念里的神不仅必须有个开始,也必须有个结束,不然就是在宇宙大挤压里被吞噬、粉碎以至被遗忘,不然就是确切的被解体到外太空冰冷、黑暗的深处——实在是一个可悲的神!
为了避免这种神学上无法接受的结论,有些摩门思想家采取否认神是包含在宇宙内之物理实质的明显途径。因此,哈里森(Harrison)问道,“神在再坍塌之后将会怎么样?希望[原文]祂站在宇宙之外,而没被压碎!” [176] 艾伦解释在宇宙之外有“第六世界”,这是“在大爆炸”之前就存在的世界。这是创造者的世界,他提供了能量给手表上链……这第六世界是没有时间和空间的开始与结束。掌管一切的就是创造者……” [177] 但是鉴于摩门教将神理解为有限的、物质上的、有时空限制的个体,创造者必须存在某个特定的时空流形,这样一来他怎样随意地跟我们的世界联系就令人费解了 [178] 就待我们来观察。艾伦自己会退缩到认为神是包含在宇宙之内的观念,因为他承认,“我敬拜宇宙中最有智慧的个体。” [179] 可以从他逐步的比较的陈述上看到,无论是在一个房间里,一城市里,一个州里,一个国家里,一个世界里,还是一个宇宙里,这意味着字面上的意思是很明显的。但是如果摩门教的神在这种意义上是存在宇宙中,他就无法逃避热力学第二定律所引申的推论。
可能有人会认为就算神是包含在宇宙中的物理形体,祂仍然有可能神奇地摆脱自然法则的约束。但是,摩门教神学有一个有趣的特点,那就是大部分摩门思想家遵循罗伯茨( B. H. Roberts)的声明,神是位于时空之内不超越自然法则的有限物理实体。按照艾里希·保罗(Erich Paul)的说法,“摩门教‘权威的’立场”就是自然法则和神的法则是一模一样的,因此没有给超自然留余地。[180] 因此,用贝利(Bailey)的话来说,“没有神迹之类的事。” [181] 神也因此同样的受那支配时空内的任何物理形体的重力定律、热力学定律所支配。
有些摩门教思想家试图维护神永恒的存在而否认神确实存在我们这起源于大爆炸的时空流形中。例如,哈里森声称,“如果我们确实相信整个宇宙都是神所创造的,那么我们就会很自然的假设祂在创造之前就存在我们所认知的宇宙之外,这暗示着祂的时间跟我们的时间是不一样的。” [182] 因此,神能够通过大爆炸来创造不单是我们的宇宙,也能创造别的宇宙。然而这提议虽然符合正统基督教对神的概念,它在摩门教认为神是一个延伸物质实体的观念上却站不住脚。这样的神就必须是存在独特时空流形中的物质实体,但是,正如贝利的解释,“目前的基本物理学和宇宙论无法提供住在宇宙内的居民有任何超过大爆炸的创造以外的交流,或干预。” [183] 大爆炸的奇点不可能有一个实质的起因,因为它是所有指向过去时空投射的终点。因此,它不能被接在某个特定的时空流形或其中的任何物体上。当贝利说目前的提议导向“一个单存的有神论”表示他确实低估了这个提案,[184] 因为有神论的神至少是宇宙的创造者,不能说成是存在另外一个时空的神。
诺曼借助十一维度超弦理论试图来证明神可能存在我们四维时空流形以外的维度中。[185] 但是这个建议只是科学的滥用。首先,这理论假设的额外六个维度都是我们时空流形的一部分。这种想法并不能说有别的流形存在,而是说我们的流形维度并不是像我们一向所以为的四维,而是十一维。既然这都是同一流形中的所有维度,它们都是通过大爆炸而存在的,并且,任何物体存在流形中的一个维度也存在其它的维度中。第二,这些额外的维度都被紧凑化,就是,卷的非常的紧密到亚原子的比例。这正是为什么我们无法察觉到它们的原因。但认为类人类的神明可能居住在其中就太不可思议了。第三,这些额外的维度全部都是空间的维度,并没有额外的时间维度。这代表它们都是围绕着我们所知道的时间维度进化,并且最终都有共同的起源。把这些维度想象为独立的时空世界,其间为超然神明居住和活动之所在,简直就像是科幻小说。
其他的摩门思想家拒绝标准模型,找出别的天体演化学理论来逃避这些难题。不过,他们这些尝试多少会有点像是在空气中抓住最后一根救命的稻草,因为替代的理论从来没有经过严谨的查考,他们也没有下功夫来证明他们所提供的模型对数据的解释要比标准模型更恰当。问题出在他们提出的这些替代模型在仔细察验之后不然就站不住脚,不然就无法避免标准模型所预测的绝对开始。例如,巴特·柯伟思(Bart Kovallis)引用林德(Linde)的混沌暴胀模型来证明摩门教对多个“世界”的信念,[186] 但他却无法表明这种模型怎能基于所有指向过去时空投射的有限性来维护神永恒的存在。[187] 当哈里森谈到大爆炸时说,“这个‘无有’,这个真空,好像在现代的物理学中特别活跃,因为粒子,或甚至宇宙都能从真空中出现或是消失。”他好像在支持真空涨落的模型,[188] 但是当涉及到这个模型所面对过去的无穷性是一个不可解决的问题时,他却保持沉默,也更不提我们为什么应该采用它而不采用标准模型。[189] 诺曼含糊的引用这个建议“黑洞……可能构成通道或者奇点,通往别的维度或者别的宇宙。在我们宇宙中消失在黑洞里的物质可能在另一个宇宙中爆出……我们的宇宙可能是别的宇宙中的一个巨大黑洞。” [190] 但是,诺曼在此想要引用什么理论并不清楚。如果黑洞代表时空奇点的话,那么,就如我们所看到的,它们在物理上是不可能构成通往其他时空领域的管道。如果他的意思是要提议通往其它时空领域,甚至其它流形的虫洞存在,那么这对过去为什么可能是无始的解释却完全无补于事。无论如何,我们不但没有任何的证据来支持这种所谓能向我们宇宙喷涌能量的“白洞”存在,这也与热力学的第二定律彼此抵触。而且大爆炸本身并不是一个白洞,因为它是一个低熵的事件,就像我们所观察的。即使有这样的虫洞存在,也没有任何物体,比如摩门教的神明能够穿梭在宇宙和宇宙之间而不被灭绝于粉身碎骨中。如果摩门教科学家想要提供或者认可替代的宇宙起源模型,那么他们必须认真的查考这类模型对过去有限性的推论,并且显示给我们看为什么这样的模型对证据的解释要比标准模型更有说服力。
如何继续?
那么要怎么继续呢?诺曼似乎是为自己投机式的建议感到尴尬,他终于承认,
与其试图找借口或干脆不理大爆炸宇宙论的暗示,或许摩门教徒应该意识到他们的神学有更新的需要。鉴于摩门教神学的动态性质,以及按照我们接受的能力而渐进启示的机制,这种和解已经不是不可能的。[191]
这种和解看上去会是什么样子的呢?贝利,渴望有一个在科学上站得住脚的神学,提倡重新解释摩门教经文。他参考《教条和契约》93.33时说,“这段经文更站得住脚的解释就是它为了反驳地球是无中生有的创造的概念……整个宇宙是不是‘无中生有创造而来的’这问题却是另外一回事。” [192] 的确,在贝利看来,摩门教可能会接受把无中生有的创造应用在宇宙上。
那么这样的撤退对摩门教观念中的神以及永恒进程的教导有什么影响呢?贝利仍然主张重新解释相关经文:“对于这一困境,最直接的解决方案就是放弃对永恒这字词的严格解释,如《教条和契约》19:6-12里所建议的。毕竟,一百五十亿年可能不是永远,但它是如此遥远的超过了我们的理解,所以从实际的目的来说就算它是永恒了。” [193] 在这样的解释上,世界过去的时段肯定是有限的,并且有一个开始。然而,摩门教观念中的神怎么理解呢?贝利的回答很令人震惊;“在那情况下,神就不是在大爆炸时创造了宇宙的个体。如果有这么一个个体的话,那会是一个超乎祂的神灵。摩门教神学当然允许神灵等级结构的可能性(D & C 121: 28)。” [194] 贝利这样的主张暗示说神——约瑟·史密斯所描述典型的摩门教神,被成千上万摩门教徒敬拜的神——并不是真正的神。而真正的神是超越祂的,真正的神是宇宙无中生有的创造者。贝利急忙补充:摩门教神学允许有等及层次的神灵。但是,这种弥补贝利修正概念的努力并不能隐藏它激进的引申。正如我们所见的,没有存在时空之内的有形实体是大爆炸的创造者。如果确实有一位至高的神是宇宙(和其中所有“神灵”)的创造者,这一位神必须是非物质的、无形体的、不在时空之内的个体,有能力从虚无中创造这个世界。这就是对神经典式的观念,主神是君王。
当然,贝利只是一位摩门教的科学家,并不是神学家。我们不抱着许多摩门教神学家会采纳他解决方案的妄想。但是,摩门教神学在过去展现过它本身具有的伸缩性。奥斯特评论说“许多摩门教徒,和大部分的非摩门教徒,都未能掌握传统摩门思想能通容的信念幅度有多大。” [195] 他说,这幅度可以从认为神是无所不能、无所不知的绝对观点,一直通容到有限主义观点的神。他指出,自从1960年以来,一个被称为“摩门教新正统神学”的运动在摩门教会中兴起,强调的主题有神的绝对性,和完全的差异性,还有人的附带性以及时间的创造。[196] 在这种运动的内折中,摩门教思想家难道不可能将永恒人格主义的有限性教义和强调神完全差异性的绝对主义,藉着从无创有的教义把它们融合起来呢?这种发展会是非常受欢迎的。[197] 只要像是贝利提供的妥协方案没有被摩门教领袖阶级正式否决,那么摩门教徒应当有自由根据圣经、哲学、科学证据的基础来肯定无中生有的创造论,接受对神的传统观念,就是神是非物质的,超然的,全能的宇宙创造者。
-
[1]
Stephen E. Robinson (and Craig L. Blomberg), How Wide the Divide? (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 138.
Stephen E. Robinson (and Craig L. Blomberg), How Wide the Divide? (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 138.
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[2]
Ibid., 196.
Ibid., 196.
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[3]
Not all Mormon scholars take this view. For instance, Erich Robert Paul begins his book Science, Religion, and Mormon Cosmology:
Since its founding in 1830, Mormonism has not only evolved a new canon that set the religious movement apart from mainline Protestantism but also fashioned an ethos that embraces a positive scientism in keeping with the roots of Greek rationalism. (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992, 1, my emphasis)
A few pages later, Paul speaks of Mormonism's “roots embedded in Greek and Hebrew traditions” (5).
Not all Mormon scholars take this view. For instance, Erich Robert Paul begins his book Science, Religion, and Mormon Cosmology:
Since its founding in 1830, Mormonism has not only evolved a new canon that set the religious movement apart from mainline Protestantism but also fashioned an ethos that embraces a positive scientism in keeping with the roots of Greek rationalism. (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992, 1, my emphasis)
A few pages later, Paul speaks of Mormonism's “roots embedded in Greek and Hebrew traditions” (5).
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[4]
B.H. Roberts, The Truth, the Way, the Life, ed. Stan Larson (San Francisco: Smith Research Associates, 1994), 224.
B.H. Roberts, The Truth, the Way, the Life, ed. Stan Larson (San Francisco: Smith Research Associates, 1994), 224.
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[5]
Lowell Bennion, “A Mormon View of Life,” Dialogue 24/3 (1991): 60.
Lowell Bennion, “A Mormon View of Life,” Dialogue 24/3 (1991): 60.
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[6]
From Pratt's discourse given in the Tabernacle in Salt Lake City, 12 Nov. 1876. Cited in B.H. Roberts, The Mormon Doctrine of Deity: The Roberts-Van Der Donckt Discussion, repr. ed. (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1998), 278.
From Pratt's discourse given in the Tabernacle in Salt Lake City, 12 Nov. 1876. Cited in B.H. Roberts, The Mormon Doctrine of Deity: The Roberts-Van Der Donckt Discussion, repr. ed. (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1998), 278.
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[7]
Ibid.
Ibid.
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[8]
John A. Widtsoe, A Rational Theology (Salt Lake City: Deseret Books, 1915), 11.
John A. Widtsoe, A Rational Theology (Salt Lake City: Deseret Books, 1915), 11.
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[9]
Ibid., 13.
Ibid., 13.
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[10]
Much of the remainder of this essay is adapted from my article, “Is Creatio ex nihilo a Post-biblical Invention?: An Examination of Gerhard May's Proposal,” Trinity Journal NS 17 (Spring 1996): 77-93.
Much of the remainder of this essay is adapted from my article, “Is Creatio ex nihilo a Post-biblical Invention?: An Examination of Gerhard May's Proposal,” Trinity Journal NS 17 (Spring 1996): 77-93.
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[11]
Ted Peters, “On Creating the Cosmos,” in Russell, Stoeger, and Coyne, Physics, Philosophy, and Theology, 273-4. To avoid a deistic flavor of creatio ex nihilo, the doctrine of creatio continua, God's continued creative and sustaining power in the universe, must be added to give a fuller, biblical picture of God's creation. See Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologica I.q.45, art. 2.
Ted Peters, “On Creating the Cosmos,” in Russell, Stoeger, and Coyne, Physics, Philosophy, and Theology, 273-4. To avoid a deistic flavor of creatio ex nihilo, the doctrine of creatio continua, God's continued creative and sustaining power in the universe, must be added to give a fuller, biblical picture of God's creation. See Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologica I.q.45, art. 2.
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[12]
O. Kendall White, Jr., “The Transformation of Mormon Theology,” Dialogue 5/2 (1970): 11.
O. Kendall White, Jr., “The Transformation of Mormon Theology,” Dialogue 5/2 (1970): 11.
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[13]
For example, Langdon Gilkey, Maker of Heaven and Earth: The Christian Doctrine of Creation in Light of Modern Knowledge (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959), chapter 3.
For example, Langdon Gilkey, Maker of Heaven and Earth: The Christian Doctrine of Creation in Light of Modern Knowledge (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959), chapter 3.
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[14]
Friedrich Schleiermacher was chiefly responsible for collapsing the ideas of Creation and Preservation. See his work, originally published in 1821-22, The Christian Faith, vol. 1, trans. Richard R. Niebuhr (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), 148-52.
Friedrich Schleiermacher was chiefly responsible for collapsing the ideas of Creation and Preservation. See his work, originally published in 1821-22, The Christian Faith, vol. 1, trans. Richard R. Niebuhr (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), 148-52.
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[15]
Augustine, Confessions XI.5.7.
Augustine, Confessions XI.5.7.
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[16]
Robert John Russell, “Finite Creation Without a Beginning,” in R.J. Russell, Nancey Murphy, and C.J. Isham, eds., Quantum Cosmology and the Laws of Nature (Vatican City: Vatican Observatory, 1993), 309.
Robert John Russell, “Finite Creation Without a Beginning,” in R.J. Russell, Nancey Murphy, and C.J. Isham, eds., Quantum Cosmology and the Laws of Nature (Vatican City: Vatican Observatory, 1993), 309.
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[17]
Roberts, The Truth, the Way, the Life, 224.
Roberts, The Truth, the Way, the Life, 224.
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[18]
Ibid., 225.
Ibid., 225.
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[19]
See Joseph Fitzmyer, Romans ABC (New York: Doubleday, 1993), 117-118.
See Joseph Fitzmyer, Romans ABC (New York: Doubleday, 1993), 117-118.
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[20]
See Benno Przybylski, Righteousness in Matthew and His World of Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
See Benno Przybylski, Righteousness in Matthew and His World of Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
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[21]
The Truth, the Way, the Life, 224. The work cited is Emil G. Hirsch, “Creation,” in ed. Isidore Singer, The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1903), 4:336.
The Truth, the Way, the Life, 224. The work cited is Emil G. Hirsch, “Creation,” in ed. Isidore Singer, The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1903), 4:336.
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[22]
The Truth, the Way, the Life, 224 (all brackets are Roberts').
The Truth, the Way, the Life, 224 (all brackets are Roberts').
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[23]
Ibid.
Ibid.
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[24]
Ibid., 228
Ibid., 228
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[25]
Anthony C. Thiselton, “Semantics and New Testament Interpretation,” in ed. I. Howard Marshall, New Testament Interpretation: Essays on Principles and Methods (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 80.
Anthony C. Thiselton, “Semantics and New Testament Interpretation,” in ed. I. Howard Marshall, New Testament Interpretation: Essays on Principles and Methods (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 80.
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[26]
That is, the way a word was used at the time of writing (as distinguished from the diachronic – how a word was used over periods of time, which is where the study of a word's etymology is quite useful). The etymological study is useful as a last-resort method – namely, when the occurrence of particular word is extremely rare and there is little else to go on.
That is, the way a word was used at the time of writing (as distinguished from the diachronic – how a word was used over periods of time, which is where the study of a word's etymology is quite useful). The etymological study is useful as a last-resort method – namely, when the occurrence of particular word is extremely rare and there is little else to go on.
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[27]
Moisés Silva, Biblical Words and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 51. See also D.A. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984), 26-32. Peter Cotterell and Max Turner state that the etymological fallacy is “a sufficiently dead horse in educated theological circles”! Linguistics and Biblical Interpretation (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1989), 114.
Moisés Silva, Biblical Words and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 51. See also D.A. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984), 26-32. Peter Cotterell and Max Turner state that the etymological fallacy is “a sufficiently dead horse in educated theological circles”! Linguistics and Biblical Interpretation (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1989), 114.
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[28]
James Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), 109.
James Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), 109.
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[29]
Gerhard May, Creatio ex Nihilo: The Doctrine of “Creation out of Nothing” in Early Christian Thought, trans. by A.S. Worall (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 24. Originally published as Schpfung aus dem Nichts (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1978).
Gerhard May, Creatio ex Nihilo: The Doctrine of “Creation out of Nothing” in Early Christian Thought, trans. by A.S. Worall (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 24. Originally published as Schpfung aus dem Nichts (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1978).
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[30]
For instance, Daniel C. Peterson footnotes May's work when he claims that the doctrine of creation ex nihilo is a second- or third-century doctrine (“Editor's Introduction” in FARMS Review of Books 10/2 1998: xvi n)
For instance, Daniel C. Peterson footnotes May's work when he claims that the doctrine of creation ex nihilo is a second- or third-century doctrine (“Editor's Introduction” in FARMS Review of Books 10/2 1998: xvi n)
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[31]
For example, Peterson and Ricks (in Offenders for a Word, 96) mention an article by Frances Young, 'Creatio ex nihilo: A Context for the Emergence of the Christian Doctrine of Creation,” Scottish Journal of Theology 44 (1991): 139-51, which relies heavily on May and bypasses biblical exegesis (although Young argues, contra typical Mormon claims, that the formulation of the Christian doctrine of creation “is a clear sign that Christian intellectuals were not 'captured' by Greek philosophy” (139)! Peterson/Ricks (Offenders for a Word, 96) and Peterson (“Editor's Introduction,” xvi) refer to Jonathan Goldstein's “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation ex Nihilo,” in the Journal of Jewish Studies 35 (1984): 127-35.
For example, Peterson and Ricks (in Offenders for a Word, 96) mention an article by Frances Young, 'Creatio ex nihilo: A Context for the Emergence of the Christian Doctrine of Creation,” Scottish Journal of Theology 44 (1991): 139-51, which relies heavily on May and bypasses biblical exegesis (although Young argues, contra typical Mormon claims, that the formulation of the Christian doctrine of creation “is a clear sign that Christian intellectuals were not 'captured' by Greek philosophy” (139)! Peterson/Ricks (Offenders for a Word, 96) and Peterson (“Editor's Introduction,” xvi) refer to Jonathan Goldstein's “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation ex Nihilo,” in the Journal of Jewish Studies 35 (1984): 127-35.
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[32]
Walter Eichrodt, “In the Beginning: A Contribution to the Interpretation of the First Word of the Bible,” in Bernhard W. Anderson, ed., Creation in the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 72.
Walter Eichrodt, “In the Beginning: A Contribution to the Interpretation of the First Word of the Bible,” in Bernhard W. Anderson, ed., Creation in the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 72.
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[33]
Ibid., 67.
Ibid., 67.
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[34]
Ibid., 72.
Ibid., 72.
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[35]
Walter Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, 2 vols., trans. J.A. Baker (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967), 2:101.
Walter Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, 2 vols., trans. J.A. Baker (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967), 2:101.
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[36]
Eichrodt, 2:102.
Eichrodt, 2:102.
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[37]
Nahum M. Sarna, Genesis, JPS Torah Commentary (New York: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 5. R.K. Harrison affirms that the phrase “the heavens and the earth” is a merism which indicates totality, not simply two antonymic elements. See Harrison, “Creation,” in Merrill C. Tenney, ed., The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975), 1:1022; also Paul K. Jewett, God, Creation, and Revelation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 457.
Nahum M. Sarna, Genesis, JPS Torah Commentary (New York: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 5. R.K. Harrison affirms that the phrase “the heavens and the earth” is a merism which indicates totality, not simply two antonymic elements. See Harrison, “Creation,” in Merrill C. Tenney, ed., The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975), 1:1022; also Paul K. Jewett, God, Creation, and Revelation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 457.
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[38]
C.F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, vol. 1 (“The Pentateuch”), trans. James Martin, repr. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 47.
C.F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, vol. 1 (“The Pentateuch”), trans. James Martin, repr. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 47.
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[39]
Claus Westermann, Genesis: A Practical Commentary, trans. David E. Green (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 7.
Claus Westermann, Genesis: A Practical Commentary, trans. David E. Green (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 7.
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[40]
R.K. Harrison, “Creation,” 1:1023.
R.K. Harrison, “Creation,” 1:1023.
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[41]
Ibid.
Ibid.
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[42]
Edwin Hatch, The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church (London: Williams and Norgate, 1891), 197. Interestingly, though Mormon scholar Keith Norman cites Hatch (“Ex Nihilo, 299), he passes over this remark about creation. Overall, Hatch overplays the influence of Greek thought upon biblical doctrine and overlooks the deep Hebraic/Old Testament influence upon various New Testament texts and Christian doctrines.
Edwin Hatch, The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church (London: Williams and Norgate, 1891), 197. Interestingly, though Mormon scholar Keith Norman cites Hatch (“Ex Nihilo, 299), he passes over this remark about creation. Overall, Hatch overplays the influence of Greek thought upon biblical doctrine and overlooks the deep Hebraic/Old Testament influence upon various New Testament texts and Christian doctrines.
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[43]
“Fides Quaerens Intellectum: The Scholar as Disciple,” in Expressions of Faith: Testimonies of Latter-Day Saint Scholars, ed. Susan Easton Black (Salt Lake City: Desert and FARMS, 1996), 179.
“Fides Quaerens Intellectum: The Scholar as Disciple,” in Expressions of Faith: Testimonies of Latter-Day Saint Scholars, ed. Susan Easton Black (Salt Lake City: Desert and FARMS, 1996), 179.
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[44]
“Creation and Cosmogony in the Bible,” Encyclopedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Encyclopedia Judaica, 1972), 5:1059.
“Creation and Cosmogony in the Bible,” Encyclopedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Encyclopedia Judaica, 1972), 5:1059.
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[45]
Brevard S. Childs, Myth and Reality in the Old Testament (Naperville, Ill.: Allenson, 1960),40. Childs sees creatio ex nihilo implicit in the text. God's action in creation “could hardly be brought into a smooth harmony with the fact of a pre-existent chaos. World reality is a result of creation, not a reshaping of existing matter” (40).
Brevard S. Childs, Myth and Reality in the Old Testament (Naperville, Ill.: Allenson, 1960),40. Childs sees creatio ex nihilo implicit in the text. God's action in creation “could hardly be brought into a smooth harmony with the fact of a pre-existent chaos. World reality is a result of creation, not a reshaping of existing matter” (40).
-
[46]
John Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound: A Provocative New Look at the Creation Account (Sisters, OR: Multnomah, 1996), 247-49.
John Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound: A Provocative New Look at the Creation Account (Sisters, OR: Multnomah, 1996), 247-49.
-
[47]
Francis Brown, et al., The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon, repr. (Peabody, Mass.: 1979), 135.
Francis Brown, et al., The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon, repr. (Peabody, Mass.: 1979), 135.
-
[48]
Jurgen Moltmann, God in Creation: A New Theology of Creation and the Spirit of God, trans. Magaret sic Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985), 72-73. For commentary on the inconsistency between Moltmann's exegesis on Genesis 1 and his panentheism (i.e., the confusion between creation out of nothing ex nihilo and continual creation continua, rendering any distinction meaningless), see Allan J. Torrance, “Creatio ex Nihilo and the Spatio-Temporal Dimensions with Special Reference to Jurgen Moltmann and D.C. Williams,” in Colin E. Gunton, ed., The Doctrine of Creation: Essays in Dogmatics, History and Philosophy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1997), 83-103; also Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, vol. 2, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 14-15.
Jurgen Moltmann, God in Creation: A New Theology of Creation and the Spirit of God, trans. Magaret sic Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985), 72-73. For commentary on the inconsistency between Moltmann's exegesis on Genesis 1 and his panentheism (i.e., the confusion between creation out of nothing ex nihilo and continual creation continua, rendering any distinction meaningless), see Allan J. Torrance, “Creatio ex Nihilo and the Spatio-Temporal Dimensions with Special Reference to Jurgen Moltmann and D.C. Williams,” in Colin E. Gunton, ed., The Doctrine of Creation: Essays in Dogmatics, History and Philosophy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1997), 83-103; also Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, vol. 2, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 14-15.
-
[49]
See John Sailhamer's discussion in “Genesis” in Frank Gaebelein, ed., Expositor's Bible Commentary vol. 2 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 21-23n. See also U. Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Genesis Part 1 (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1992 repr.), 20. Cassuto argues that beginning with verse 2, the focus changes from the cosmos to creation's relationship to humanity, stressing the themes of “land” and “blessing,” which prevail throughout the Pentateuch.
See John Sailhamer's discussion in “Genesis” in Frank Gaebelein, ed., Expositor's Bible Commentary vol. 2 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 21-23n. See also U. Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Genesis Part 1 (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1992 repr.), 20. Cassuto argues that beginning with verse 2, the focus changes from the cosmos to creation's relationship to humanity, stressing the themes of “land” and “blessing,” which prevail throughout the Pentateuch.
-
[50]
Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound, 250.
Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound, 250.
-
[51]
Moltmann, God in Creation, 73.
Moltmann, God in Creation, 73.
-
[52]
Ibid.
Ibid.
-
[53]
Werner Foerster, “ktizô,” in ed. Gerhard Kittel, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 10 vols., trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), 3: 1010
Werner Foerster, “ktizô,” in ed. Gerhard Kittel, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 10 vols., trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), 3: 1010
-
[54]
A similar translation is endorsed by B.H. Roberts: “In the beginning, when God created the heavens and the earth, the earth was without form and void . . .” (The Truth, the Way, the Life, 227). Cp. E. Speiser who takes Gen. 1:1 as a construct rather than an absolute: “When God set about to create heaven and earth . . .” (Genesis ABC 1 Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964, 3); so also Luis I. J. Stadelmann (The Hebrew Conception of the World: A Philological and Literary Study Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970, 11). However, if what we have just argued is true, this would mean that Ian Barbour's assertion that Genesis argues for “the creation of order from chaos” rather than from nothing is misguided (Barbour, Religion in an Age of Science, 130) – not to mention the LDS viewpoint as well.
A similar translation is endorsed by B.H. Roberts: “In the beginning, when God created the heavens and the earth, the earth was without form and void . . .” (The Truth, the Way, the Life, 227). Cp. E. Speiser who takes Gen. 1:1 as a construct rather than an absolute: “When God set about to create heaven and earth . . .” (Genesis ABC 1 Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964, 3); so also Luis I. J. Stadelmann (The Hebrew Conception of the World: A Philological and Literary Study Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970, 11). However, if what we have just argued is true, this would mean that Ian Barbour's assertion that Genesis argues for “the creation of order from chaos” rather than from nothing is misguided (Barbour, Religion in an Age of Science, 130) – not to mention the LDS viewpoint as well.
-
[55]
Bernhard W. Anderson, Contours of Old Testament Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999), 88-89. Kenneth A. Mathews' analysis concludes that “v. 1 is best taken as an absolute statement of God's creation” (Genesis 1-11:26 NAC 1A Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1996, 139).
Bernhard W. Anderson, Contours of Old Testament Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999), 88-89. Kenneth A. Mathews' analysis concludes that “v. 1 is best taken as an absolute statement of God's creation” (Genesis 1-11:26 NAC 1A Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1996, 139).
-
[56]
En arch' epoi'sen ho theos ton ouranon kai t'n g'n. H' de g' . . . = “in the beginning God created heaven and earth.”
En arch' epoi'sen ho theos ton ouranon kai t'n g'n. H' de g' . . . = “in the beginning God created heaven and earth.”
-
[57]
Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis Chapters 1-17 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 107. The Vulgate also translates the verse as an absolute and treats it as an independent clause: In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram. Bruce Waltke lists “all ancient versions” – “LXX, Vulgate, Aquila, Theodotion, Symmachus, Targum Onkelos” – as understanding Genesis 1:1 as an “independent clause”: “The Initial Chaos Theory and the Precreation Chaos Theory,” Bibliotheca Sacra 132 (July 1975): 223.
Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis Chapters 1-17 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 107. The Vulgate also translates the verse as an absolute and treats it as an independent clause: In principio creavit Deus coelum et terram. Bruce Waltke lists “all ancient versions” – “LXX, Vulgate, Aquila, Theodotion, Symmachus, Targum Onkelos” – as understanding Genesis 1:1 as an “independent clause”: “The Initial Chaos Theory and the Precreation Chaos Theory,” Bibliotheca Sacra 132 (July 1975): 223.
-
[58]
C.F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, vol. 1 (“The Pentateuch”), 46.
C.F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, vol. 1 (“The Pentateuch”), 46.
-
[59]
Ibid., 46. The same conclusion is drawn by Hamilton, Genesis 1-17, 106.
Ibid., 46. The same conclusion is drawn by Hamilton, Genesis 1-17, 106.
-
[60]
Ibid. Cp. Foerster, who says that this merism “embraces the cosmos” (3:1012).
Ibid. Cp. Foerster, who says that this merism “embraces the cosmos” (3:1012).
-
[61]
“The Initial Chaos Theory,” 225. See Waltke's entire essay, 217-28.
“The Initial Chaos Theory,” 225. See Waltke's entire essay, 217-28.
-
[62]
Thomas E. McComiskey, “bârâ',” in ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason J. Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 2 vols. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1980) 1:127. McComiskey mentions that y‚tzar primarily emphasizes the shaping of an object.
Thomas E. McComiskey, “bârâ',” in ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason J. Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 2 vols. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1980) 1:127. McComiskey mentions that y‚tzar primarily emphasizes the shaping of an object.
-
[63]
“Exegetical Notes on Genesis 1:1-2,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 10 (1948): 142; see also Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1010: bârâ' is used in the Old Testament “only of a divine action.”
“Exegetical Notes on Genesis 1:1-2,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 10 (1948): 142; see also Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1010: bârâ' is used in the Old Testament “only of a divine action.”
-
[64]
Ibid., 144
Ibid., 144
-
[65]
Ibid. Arbez and Weisengoff point out that scholars such as Knig, Reuss, A. Heidel, and Wellhausen as drawing this conclusion as well (144-45n).
Ibid. Arbez and Weisengoff point out that scholars such as Knig, Reuss, A. Heidel, and Wellhausen as drawing this conclusion as well (144-45n).
-
[66]
Mathews, Genesis 1-11:26, 141.
Mathews, Genesis 1-11:26, 141.
-
[67]
So Armin Schmitt: “Aus dieser Sicht ist es gut mglich, dafl aoratos in Gen 1 2 platonisch beeinfluflt ist. Auch akataskeuastos tendiert in diese Richtung = From this view it is well likely that aoratos = unseen/invisible in Gen. 1:2 is influenced by Platonism. Akataskeuastos = unformed also tends in this direction” (Interpretation der Genesis aus hellenistischem Geist,” Zeitschrift f?r alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 86 (1974): 150. Schmitt points out these particular terms are “an essential component of the Greek and especially the Platonic doctrine of origins that the world was conveyed/transformed from an initially disordered status to a condition of harmony and beauty = eine wesentliche Komponente der griechischen und speziell der platonishen Weltentstehungslehre, dafl die Welt aus einem anf‰nglich ungeordneten Status in einen Zustand der Harmonie und Schnheit ?berf?hrt wird”(151).
So Armin Schmitt: “Aus dieser Sicht ist es gut mglich, dafl aoratos in Gen 1 2 platonisch beeinfluflt ist. Auch akataskeuastos tendiert in diese Richtung = From this view it is well likely that aoratos = unseen/invisible in Gen. 1:2 is influenced by Platonism. Akataskeuastos = unformed also tends in this direction” (Interpretation der Genesis aus hellenistischem Geist,” Zeitschrift f?r alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 86 (1974): 150. Schmitt points out these particular terms are “an essential component of the Greek and especially the Platonic doctrine of origins that the world was conveyed/transformed from an initially disordered status to a condition of harmony and beauty = eine wesentliche Komponente der griechischen und speziell der platonishen Weltentstehungslehre, dafl die Welt aus einem anf‰nglich ungeordneten Status in einen Zustand der Harmonie und Schnheit ?berf?hrt wird”(151).
-
[68]
See discussion in Hamilton, Genesis 1-17, 108-9; echoing this is Kenneth Mathews' extensive discussion in Genesis 1-11:26, 130-44.
See discussion in Hamilton, Genesis 1-17, 108-9; echoing this is Kenneth Mathews' extensive discussion in Genesis 1-11:26, 130-44.
-
[69]
Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound, 214; for a fuller discussion, see 213-22.
Sailhamer, Genesis Unbound, 214; for a fuller discussion, see 213-22.
-
[70]
Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative, 85n.
Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative, 85n.
-
[71]
Ibid., 85n.
Ibid., 85n.
-
[72]
Keil and Delitzsch, 47-48.
Keil and Delitzsch, 47-48.
-
[73]
Ibid., 47.
Ibid., 47.
-
[74]
Keil and Delitzsch, 47-48.
Keil and Delitzsch, 47-48.
-
[75]
Carl F.H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority 6 (Waco, TX: Word, 1983), 122.
Carl F.H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority 6 (Waco, TX: Word, 1983), 122.
-
[76]
Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, vol. 2, 17.
Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, vol. 2, 17.
-
[77]
God's creation by divine fiat is also reflected in 2 Esdras 6:38: “I said, O Lord, You have indeed spoken from the beginning of creation; on the first day You said: 'Let heaven and earth be made,' and Your word accomplished the work.”
God's creation by divine fiat is also reflected in 2 Esdras 6:38: “I said, O Lord, You have indeed spoken from the beginning of creation; on the first day You said: 'Let heaven and earth be made,' and Your word accomplished the work.”
-
[78]
Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1012; “God created everything (without precondition”): W.H Schmidt, “bârâ',” in Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, 3 vols., ed. Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann, trans. Mark E. Biddle (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1997), 1:256.
Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1012; “God created everything (without precondition”): W.H Schmidt, “bârâ',” in Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, 3 vols., ed. Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann, trans. Mark E. Biddle (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1997), 1:256.
-
[79]
McComiskey, “bârâ',” 1:173. See also Jewett's helpful discussion in God, Creation, and Revelation, 455-467; and, W.H Schmidt, “bârâ',” 1:253-56.
McComiskey, “bârâ',” 1:173. See also Jewett's helpful discussion in God, Creation, and Revelation, 455-467; and, W.H Schmidt, “bârâ',” 1:253-56.
-
[80]
F.F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews, 280.
F.F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews, 280.
-
[81]
Jaroslav Pelikan, “Creation and Causality in the History of Christian Thought,” in Sol Tax and Charles Callender, eds., Evolution After Darwin, vol. 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1960), 34.
Jaroslav Pelikan, “Creation and Causality in the History of Christian Thought,” in Sol Tax and Charles Callender, eds., Evolution After Darwin, vol. 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1960), 34.
-
[82]
Keith Norman, “Ex Nihilo: The Development of the Doctrines of God and Creation in Early Christianity,” BYU Studies 3 (Spring 1977): 301: “As Werner Foerster admits. . . .” He does nothing of the sort! In fact, Foerster refers once again to Rom. 4:17 to show that “creation involves the beginning of the existence of the world, so that there is no pre-existent matter” (3:1029).
Keith Norman, “Ex Nihilo: The Development of the Doctrines of God and Creation in Early Christianity,” BYU Studies 3 (Spring 1977): 301: “As Werner Foerster admits. . . .” He does nothing of the sort! In fact, Foerster refers once again to Rom. 4:17 to show that “creation involves the beginning of the existence of the world, so that there is no pre-existent matter” (3:1029).
-
[83]
Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1010.
Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1010.
-
[84]
Ibid.
Ibid.
-
[85]
Ibid., 3:1029.
Ibid., 3:1029.
-
[86]
Ellingworth, 569.
Ellingworth, 569.
-
[87]
Ellingworth, 571.
Ellingworth, 571.
-
[88]
Paul Ellingworth, Commentary on Hebrews NIGNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 568.
Paul Ellingworth, Commentary on Hebrews NIGNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 568.
-
[89]
Ellingworth, 569. Ellingworth indicates that the two halves of the verse are parallel in meaning and form a chiasmus:
(1) kat'rtisthai (1') gegonenai
(2) tous aiônas (2') to blepomenon
(3) rh'mati theou (3') m' ek phainomenôn
Ellingworth, 569. Ellingworth indicates that the two halves of the verse are parallel in meaning and form a chiasmus:
(1) kat'rtisthai (1') gegonenai
(2) tous aiônas (2') to blepomenon
(3) rh'mati theou (3') m' ek phainomenôn
-
[90]
C.F.D. Moule, An Idiom Book of New Testament Greek (Cambridge: University Press, 1968 repr.), 168. Moule adds, however, that the order of the negative m' before the preposition ek, “from” or “out of,” is somewhat awkward grammatically.
C.F.D. Moule, An Idiom Book of New Testament Greek (Cambridge: University Press, 1968 repr.), 168. Moule adds, however, that the order of the negative m' before the preposition ek, “from” or “out of,” is somewhat awkward grammatically.
-
[91]
William L. Lane, Hebrews 48 WBC (Dallas: Word, 1991), 332.
William L. Lane, Hebrews 48 WBC (Dallas: Word, 1991), 332.
-
[92]
Ibid. Without giving any substantial evidence for his assertion, Harold Attridge asserts that “a Platonic cosmogonic model” lies behind the formulation of this verse. See his Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 316.
Ibid. Without giving any substantial evidence for his assertion, Harold Attridge asserts that “a Platonic cosmogonic model” lies behind the formulation of this verse. See his Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 316.
-
[93]
Although Raymond Brown wrongly asserts that John 1:1-18 “does not necessarily have the same theology as the Gospel” (see D.A. Carson's discussion on how the John's prologue actually introduces the Gospel's major themes: The Gospel According to John Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991, 111-112), Brown makes plain that the word egeneto (“come into being”) is used consistently to describe creation in the Septuagint in Genesis 1 (Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John I-XII ABC 29 New York: Doubleday, 1966, 6.)
Although Raymond Brown wrongly asserts that John 1:1-18 “does not necessarily have the same theology as the Gospel” (see D.A. Carson's discussion on how the John's prologue actually introduces the Gospel's major themes: The Gospel According to John Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991, 111-112), Brown makes plain that the word egeneto (“come into being”) is used consistently to describe creation in the Septuagint in Genesis 1 (Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John I-XII ABC 29 New York: Doubleday, 1966, 6.)
-
[94]
For a survey of the biblical data regarding creation, see Karl Hermann Schelkle, Theology of the New Testament, vol. 1, trans. William A. Jurgens (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1971), 3-61.
For a survey of the biblical data regarding creation, see Karl Hermann Schelkle, Theology of the New Testament, vol. 1, trans. William A. Jurgens (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1971), 3-61.
-
[95]
Raymond Brown, Gospel According to John I-XII, 8.
Raymond Brown, Gospel According to John I-XII, 8.
-
[96]
Ibid., 26.
Ibid., 26.
-
[97]
Eichrodt, 2:102.
Eichrodt, 2:102.
-
[98]
Corresponds, that is, in chiastic fashion.
Corresponds, that is, in chiastic fashion.
-
[99]
P.T. O'Brien, Colossians, Philemon WBC 44 (Waco, Tex.: Word,1982), 46.
P.T. O'Brien, Colossians, Philemon WBC 44 (Waco, Tex.: Word,1982), 46.
-
[100]
N.T. Wright, Colossians and Philemon TNTC (Downers Grove, Ill./Grand Rapids: InterVarsity Press/Eerdmans, 1986), 73.
N.T. Wright, Colossians and Philemon TNTC (Downers Grove, Ill./Grand Rapids: InterVarsity Press/Eerdmans, 1986), 73.
-
[101]
In E.K. Simpson and F.F. Bruce, The Epistles of Paul to the Ephesians and to the Colossians, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957), 200. O'Brien also points out Christ's “temporal priority to the universe” (Colossians, Philemon, 47) as does N.T. Wright, Colossians and Philemon, 71 (“priority in both time and rank”; “the continuing temporal sense of the word is clear”).
In E.K. Simpson and F.F. Bruce, The Epistles of Paul to the Ephesians and to the Colossians, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957), 200. O'Brien also points out Christ's “temporal priority to the universe” (Colossians, Philemon, 47) as does N.T. Wright, Colossians and Philemon, 71 (“priority in both time and rank”; “the continuing temporal sense of the word is clear”).
-
[102]
O'Brien, Colossians, Philemon, 47.
O'Brien, Colossians, Philemon, 47.
-
[103]
Ibid.
Ibid.
-
[104]
Ibid.
Ibid.
-
[105]
Moltmann, God in Creation, 74.
Moltmann, God in Creation, 74.
-
[106]
Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1029. This is utterly contrary to the LDS claim made by Keith Norman that “a closer examination of various 'exploited' passages in the New Testament the text belies this ex nihilo interpretation” (“Ex nihilo,” 301) – despite the fact that Norman cites Foerster.
Foerster, “ktizô,” 3:1029. This is utterly contrary to the LDS claim made by Keith Norman that “a closer examination of various 'exploited' passages in the New Testament the text belies this ex nihilo interpretation” (“Ex nihilo,” 301) – despite the fact that Norman cites Foerster.
-
[107]
Ian Barbour, Issues in Science and Religion (New York: Harper & Row, 1971, repr.), 384. Philosopher of science Ernan McMullin states that the doctrine of creation out of nothing, “an act of absolute bringing to be,” took “firm shape only in the first centuries of the Christian era, in part at least in response to the prevalent dualisms of the day that represented matter as evil, or at least, as resistant to God's action.” McMullin is at least willing to concede that hints of creatio ex nihilo can be found in Scripture (pointing to 2 Maccabees 7:28 and Romans 1:20): “Natural Science and Belief in a Creator,” in Physics, Philosophy, and Theology, ed. Robert Russell, William Stoeger, and George Coyne (Vatican City: Vatican Observatory, 1988), 56. Anglican priest and physicist John Polkinghorne sees 2 Maccabees 7:28 as the “earliest unequivocal statement of the idea of creation out of nothing” although he believes Genesis 1 stresses at least “the dependence of all upon the sovereign will of God for its existence,” which is “certainly consonant with the central significance of creatio ex nihilo.” See Polkinghorne's Reason and Reality (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1991), 72.
Ian Barbour, Issues in Science and Religion (New York: Harper & Row, 1971, repr.), 384. Philosopher of science Ernan McMullin states that the doctrine of creation out of nothing, “an act of absolute bringing to be,” took “firm shape only in the first centuries of the Christian era, in part at least in response to the prevalent dualisms of the day that represented matter as evil, or at least, as resistant to God's action.” McMullin is at least willing to concede that hints of creatio ex nihilo can be found in Scripture (pointing to 2 Maccabees 7:28 and Romans 1:20): “Natural Science and Belief in a Creator,” in Physics, Philosophy, and Theology, ed. Robert Russell, William Stoeger, and George Coyne (Vatican City: Vatican Observatory, 1988), 56. Anglican priest and physicist John Polkinghorne sees 2 Maccabees 7:28 as the “earliest unequivocal statement of the idea of creation out of nothing” although he believes Genesis 1 stresses at least “the dependence of all upon the sovereign will of God for its existence,” which is “certainly consonant with the central significance of creatio ex nihilo.” See Polkinghorne's Reason and Reality (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1991), 72.
-
[108]
Ibid.
Ibid.
-
[109]
Ian G. Barbour, Religion in an Age of Science, The Gifford Lectures 1989-1991, vol. 1 (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990), 144.
Ian G. Barbour, Religion in an Age of Science, The Gifford Lectures 1989-1991, vol. 1 (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990), 144.
-
[110]
Ibid., 129.
Ibid., 129.
-
[111]
Ibid., 24.
Ibid., 24.
-
[112]
Ibid., 2
Ibid., 2
-
[113]
Hugh Nibley, “Treasures in the Heavens: Some Early Christian Insights into the Organizing of Worlds,” Dialogue 8/3-4 (1973): 77.
Hugh Nibley, “Treasures in the Heavens: Some Early Christian Insights into the Organizing of Worlds,” Dialogue 8/3-4 (1973): 77.
-
[114]
Ibid., 82.
Ibid., 82.
-
[115]
Stephen Robinson, personal correspondence (20 April 1998).
Stephen Robinson, personal correspondence (20 April 1998).
-
[116]
Peterson and Ricks assert on the basis of Anderson's article that “it is highly doubtful that the doctrine of ex nihilo creation is to be found in Genesis or anywhere else in the Old Testament” (Offenders for a Word Provo: FARMS, 1992), 95.
Peterson and Ricks assert on the basis of Anderson's article that “it is highly doubtful that the doctrine of ex nihilo creation is to be found in Genesis or anywhere else in the Old Testament” (Offenders for a Word Provo: FARMS, 1992), 95.
-
[117]
Anderson, “Creation,” IBD 1:728. Elsewhere, Anderson states that the view of creatio ex nihilo is “not supported explicitly by the biblical text” (Contours of Old Testament Theology, 87), but he apparently means the specific creation text of Genesis, as the context indicates. Such a reading is reinforced by the present IBD quotation by Anderson, which cites New Testament evidence (Rom. 4:17; Heb. 11:3) for creation ex nihilo: Rom. 4:17; Heb. 11:3.
Anderson, “Creation,” IBD 1:728. Elsewhere, Anderson states that the view of creatio ex nihilo is “not supported explicitly by the biblical text” (Contours of Old Testament Theology, 87), but he apparently means the specific creation text of Genesis, as the context indicates. Such a reading is reinforced by the present IBD quotation by Anderson, which cites New Testament evidence (Rom. 4:17; Heb. 11:3) for creation ex nihilo: Rom. 4:17; Heb. 11:3.
-
[118]
Irenaeus, Against Heresies III:X.3; cf. II:10.4.
Irenaeus, Against Heresies III:X.3; cf. II:10.4.
-
[119]
Augustine, Confessions 12.7.
Augustine, Confessions 12.7.
-
[120]
May, Creatio ex nihilo, 257-8.
May, Creatio ex nihilo, 257-8.
-
[121]
Stephen D. Ricks, “Fides Quaerens Intellectum: The Scholar as Disciple,” in Expressions of Faith: Testimonies of Latter-Day Saint Scholars, ed. Susan Easton Black (Salt Lake City: Desert and FARMS, 1996), 179.
Stephen D. Ricks, “Fides Quaerens Intellectum: The Scholar as Disciple,” in Expressions of Faith: Testimonies of Latter-Day Saint Scholars, ed. Susan Easton Black (Salt Lake City: Desert and FARMS, 1996), 179.
-
[122]
May, Creatio ex nihilo, 180. See my comments in “Is Creatio ex nihilo a Post-biblical Invention?”, 81-84.
May, Creatio ex nihilo, 180. See my comments in “Is Creatio ex nihilo a Post-biblical Invention?”, 81-84.
-
[123]
F.F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 281n.
F.F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 281n.
-
[124]
Ibid., 66.
Ibid., 66.
-
[125]
I am grateful to D.A. Carson on this point.
I am grateful to D.A. Carson on this point.
-
[126]
Ibid., 67.
Ibid., 67.
-
[127]
Bernhard W. Anderson, Contours of Old Testament Theology, 87.
Bernhard W. Anderson, Contours of Old Testament Theology, 87.
-
[128]
Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, trans. D.M.G. Stalker (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 142n.
Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 1, trans. D.M.G. Stalker (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 142n.
-
[129]
Claus Westermann, Creation, trans. John J. Scullion (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), 36.
Claus Westermann, Creation, trans. John J. Scullion (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), 36.
-
[130]
For a different perspective, cp. Jonathan A. Goldstein, II Maccabees, ABC 41A (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 307-15; idem, “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation ex Nihilo,” in the Journal of Jewish Studies 35 (1984): 127-35; so also LDS scholar Keith Norman, “Ex Nihilo,” 299. However, Westermann, who sees 2 Macc. 7:28 as affirming creatio ex nihilo, claims that it is “no accident” that this idea should arise in a Hellenistic setting in defense of a biblical worldview (“God created the heavens and the earth”) – not to mention that Judaism would be influenced to think of formless matter before creation. Although Westermann believes that Genesis 1:1-2 does not explicitly affirm creation out of nothing (even though Westermann comes close to affirming this), he makes clear that the idea of matter's pre-existing creation was not in the thinking of the biblical writer (Claus Westermann, Genesis 1-11 Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1984, 110.)
For a different perspective, cp. Jonathan A. Goldstein, II Maccabees, ABC 41A (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 307-15; idem, “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation ex Nihilo,” in the Journal of Jewish Studies 35 (1984): 127-35; so also LDS scholar Keith Norman, “Ex Nihilo,” 299. However, Westermann, who sees 2 Macc. 7:28 as affirming creatio ex nihilo, claims that it is “no accident” that this idea should arise in a Hellenistic setting in defense of a biblical worldview (“God created the heavens and the earth”) – not to mention that Judaism would be influenced to think of formless matter before creation. Although Westermann believes that Genesis 1:1-2 does not explicitly affirm creation out of nothing (even though Westermann comes close to affirming this), he makes clear that the idea of matter's pre-existing creation was not in the thinking of the biblical writer (Claus Westermann, Genesis 1-11 Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1984, 110.)
-
[131]
Cited from Florentino Garc”a Mart”nez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated 2nd ed. (Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1996), 6. All other citations are taken from this translation.
Cited from Florentino Garc”a Mart”nez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated 2nd ed. (Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1996), 6. All other citations are taken from this translation.
-
[132]
For a brief discussion of the doctrine of creation in the Qumran texts, see Daniel J. Harrington, “Creation,” in Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2. vols., ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman and James C. VanderKam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 1:155-57.
For a brief discussion of the doctrine of creation in the Qumran texts, see Daniel J. Harrington, “Creation,” in Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2. vols., ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman and James C. VanderKam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 1:155-57.
-
[133]
This translation is rendered by Jonathan A. Goldstein in “Creation ex nihilo: Recantations and Restatements,” Journal of Jewish Studies 38 (Autumn 1987): 189. Goldstein defends his reading of creatio ex nihilo in Gamaliel's statement, contra David Winston, “The Book of Wisdom's Theory of Cosmogony,” History of Religions (1971): 185-202; and David Winston, “Creation Ex Nihilo Revisited: A Reply to Jonathan Goldstein,” Journal of Jewish Studies37 1986: 88-92. Mormon writers such as Peterson and Ricks cite Winston, but neglect Goldstein's 1987 article defending previously-made statements in his essay “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation Ex Nihilo” (though recanting others). Despite Peter Hayman's siding with David Winston and announcing Goldstein's “conceding the weakness of his position” (“Monotheism – A Misused Word in Jewish Studies,” 42 1991:3), Hayman does not deal with the Gamaliel question, and Goldstein staunchly defends his position.
This translation is rendered by Jonathan A. Goldstein in “Creation ex nihilo: Recantations and Restatements,” Journal of Jewish Studies 38 (Autumn 1987): 189. Goldstein defends his reading of creatio ex nihilo in Gamaliel's statement, contra David Winston, “The Book of Wisdom's Theory of Cosmogony,” History of Religions (1971): 185-202; and David Winston, “Creation Ex Nihilo Revisited: A Reply to Jonathan Goldstein,” Journal of Jewish Studies37 1986: 88-92. Mormon writers such as Peterson and Ricks cite Winston, but neglect Goldstein's 1987 article defending previously-made statements in his essay “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation Ex Nihilo” (though recanting others). Despite Peter Hayman's siding with David Winston and announcing Goldstein's “conceding the weakness of his position” (“Monotheism – A Misused Word in Jewish Studies,” 42 1991:3), Hayman does not deal with the Gamaliel question, and Goldstein staunchly defends his position.
-
[134]
Unformed space/void was formed by God (Isa. 45:7) as were darkness (Isa. 45:7), water (Ps. 148:4-5), wind (Amos 4:13), and the depths (Prov. 8:24). Taken from Jacob Neusner Confronting Creation (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 41-42.
Unformed space/void was formed by God (Isa. 45:7) as were darkness (Isa. 45:7), water (Ps. 148:4-5), wind (Amos 4:13), and the depths (Prov. 8:24). Taken from Jacob Neusner Confronting Creation (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 41-42.
-
[135]
Shepherd of Hermas 1.6: ktisas ek tou m' ontos ta onta; 26.1: poi'sas ek tou m' ontos eis to einai ta panta.
Shepherd of Hermas 1.6: ktisas ek tou m' ontos ta onta; 26.1: poi'sas ek tou m' ontos eis to einai ta panta.
-
[136]
Denis Carroll, “Creation,” in Joseph Komanchak, et al., eds., The New Dictionary of Theology (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1987), 249.
Denis Carroll, “Creation,” in Joseph Komanchak, et al., eds., The New Dictionary of Theology (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1987), 249.
-
[137]
James Charlesworth, “Odes of Solomon,” in James Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1985), 2:726-27.
James Charlesworth, “Odes of Solomon,” in James Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1985), 2:726-27.
-
[138]
Frederick James Murphy, The Structure and Meaning of Second Baruch, SBL Dissertation Series (Atlanta: Scholar's Press, 1985), 43.
Frederick James Murphy, The Structure and Meaning of Second Baruch, SBL Dissertation Series (Atlanta: Scholar's Press, 1985), 43.
-
[139]
Ap. Const. 8.12.6,8. May (22n) and others (such as W. Bousset) view this section (12) of the Constitutions as being a later Christian interpolation, but James Charlesworth, among others, does not think so (“Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1:690n). At least the lack of consensus should preclude us from hastily dismissing it.
Ap. Const. 8.12.6,8. May (22n) and others (such as W. Bousset) view this section (12) of the Constitutions as being a later Christian interpolation, but James Charlesworth, among others, does not think so (“Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1:690n). At least the lack of consensus should preclude us from hastily dismissing it.
-
[140]
Stephen Ricks, “Fides Quaerens Intellectum,” 178.
Stephen Ricks, “Fides Quaerens Intellectum,” 178.
-
[141]
Goldstein, “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation Ex Nihilo,” 127. Norbert M Samuelson, Judaism and the Doctrine of Creation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) takes this view, but fails to take into account the subtleties suggested by Sailhamer (below).
Goldstein, “The Origins of the Doctrine of Creation Ex Nihilo,” 127. Norbert M Samuelson, Judaism and the Doctrine of Creation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) takes this view, but fails to take into account the subtleties suggested by Sailhamer (below).
-
[142]
One can read Rashi's comments in “Genesis,” in The Pentateuch and Rashi's Commentary, vol. 1 (Brooklyn: S.S. & R., 1949).
One can read Rashi's comments in “Genesis,” in The Pentateuch and Rashi's Commentary, vol. 1 (Brooklyn: S.S. & R., 1949).
-
[143]
Sailhamer, “Genesis,” 22. See Sailhamer's extensive note on 21-23 for further discussion. See in addition John H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992) not only for his discussion of Gen. 1:1ff., but for his comments on the inter-textuality and integrity of the Pentateuch. I am grateful to John Sailhamer for his discussion on this subject.
Sailhamer, “Genesis,” 22. See Sailhamer's extensive note on 21-23 for further discussion. See in addition John H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992) not only for his discussion of Gen. 1:1ff., but for his comments on the inter-textuality and integrity of the Pentateuch. I am grateful to John Sailhamer for his discussion on this subject.
-
[144]
Foerster, “Ktizô,” 1:1016.
Foerster, “Ktizô,” 1:1016.
-
[145]
Ibid., 1:1017
Ibid., 1:1017
-
[146]
For instance, Max Nolan writes that the “most striking element in Mormon theology and process theology alike . . . is the idea that Deity is subject to process” (“Materialism and the Mormon Faith,” 73). Moreover, in Mormon metaphysics we have “the material or unorganized matter constituents of the world, and the intelligences embodied in the world, are uncreated and co-eternal with Deity” (Ibid.). Nolan declares that “the open texture of process theology seems therefore to offer a useful way to approach the question of the Mormon metaphysical commitment” (Ibid.).
For instance, Max Nolan writes that the “most striking element in Mormon theology and process theology alike . . . is the idea that Deity is subject to process” (“Materialism and the Mormon Faith,” 73). Moreover, in Mormon metaphysics we have “the material or unorganized matter constituents of the world, and the intelligences embodied in the world, are uncreated and co-eternal with Deity” (Ibid.). Nolan declares that “the open texture of process theology seems therefore to offer a useful way to approach the question of the Mormon metaphysical commitment” (Ibid.).
-
[147]
Norman, “Ex nihilo,” 306.
Norman, “Ex nihilo,” 306.
-
[148]
Plato, Timaeus 30a in ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, Plato: The Collected Dialogues, Bollingen Series 71 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 1162.
Plato, Timaeus 30a in ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, Plato: The Collected Dialogues, Bollingen Series 71 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 1162.
-
[149]
See Plato Timaeus 30; Aristotle Physics 8. 1. 251a10-252a1; 8. 6. 259a10-15.
See Plato Timaeus 30; Aristotle Physics 8. 1. 251a10-252a1; 8. 6. 259a10-15.
-
[150]
Blake T. Ostler, critical notice of The Mormon Concept of God, by Francis J. Beckwith and Stephen E. Parrish, Farms Review of Books 8/2 (1996): 130.
Blake T. Ostler, critical notice of The Mormon Concept of God, by Francis J. Beckwith and Stephen E. Parrish, Farms Review of Books 8/2 (1996): 130.
-
[151]
Ibid. I think his error arises partly from the misimpression that “there is no such number as infinity” (Blake Ostler, “Was The Doctrine of Creation ex Nihilo Created Out of Nothing?”, unpublished paper, p. 14). This is a mistake; there is a whole system of transfinite arithmetic employing the transfinite cardinal numbers. ¿0, ¿1, ¿2, . . . are just as much numbers as are 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Ibid. I think his error arises partly from the misimpression that “there is no such number as infinity” (Blake Ostler, “Was The Doctrine of Creation ex Nihilo Created Out of Nothing?”, unpublished paper, p. 14). This is a mistake; there is a whole system of transfinite arithmetic employing the transfinite cardinal numbers. ¿0, ¿1, ¿2, . . . are just as much numbers as are 0, 1, 2, . . . .
-
[152]
Ostler, critical notice of Mormon Concept of God, p. 130.
Ostler, critical notice of Mormon Concept of God, p. 130.
-
[153]
Cf. Ostler 's intriguing comment that if we have a time machine,
“we cannot actually visit the infinite number of past times because no matter how long we spent going back to the past in the future, the number of times that we will have visited will be finite. . . . However, there is a way to visit each of the infinite number of past times–to have lived through all of them. And that is just what Mormonism claims we and God have done” (Ostler, “Doctrine of Creatio ex Nihilo,” p. 17).
Cf. Ostler 's intriguing comment that if we have a time machine,
“we cannot actually visit the infinite number of past times because no matter how long we spent going back to the past in the future, the number of times that we will have visited will be finite. . . . However, there is a way to visit each of the infinite number of past times–to have lived through all of them. And that is just what Mormonism claims we and God have done” (Ostler, “Doctrine of Creatio ex Nihilo,” p. 17).
-
[154]
Bertrand Russell, Our Knowledge of the External World, 2d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1929), p. 170.
Bertrand Russell, Our Knowledge of the External World, 2d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1929), p. 170.
-
[155]
Ostler, critical notice of Mormon Concept of God, p. 128.
Ostler, critical notice of Mormon Concept of God, p. 128.
-
[156]
Ibid., p. 129.
Ibid., p. 129.
-
[157]
Ibid., p. 130.
Ibid., p. 130.
-
[158]
Ibid., p. 129.
Ibid., p. 129.
-
[159]
This should not be taken to mean that the density of the universe takes on a value of aleph-null ℵ0, but rather that the density of the universe is expressed by a ratio of mass to volume in which the volume is zero; since division by zero is impermissible, the density is said to be infinite in this sense.
This should not be taken to mean that the density of the universe takes on a value of aleph-null ℵ0, but rather that the density of the universe is expressed by a ratio of mass to volume in which the volume is zero; since division by zero is impermissible, the density is said to be infinite in this sense.
-
[160]
P. C. W. Davies, “Spacetime Singularities in Cosmology,” in The Study of Time III, ed. J. T. Fraser
P. C. W. Davies, “Spacetime Singularities in Cosmology,” in The Study of Time III, ed. J. T. Fraser
-
[161]
John Barrow and Frank Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 442.
John Barrow and Frank Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 442.
-
[162]
Quentin Smith, “The Uncaused Beginning of the Universe,” in Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology, by William Lane Craig and Quentin Smith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 120.
Quentin Smith, “The Uncaused Beginning of the Universe,” in Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology, by William Lane Craig and Quentin Smith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 120.
-
[163]
Arthur Eddington, The Expanding Universe (New York: Macmillan, 1933), p. 124.
Arthur Eddington, The Expanding Universe (New York: Macmillan, 1933), p. 124.
-
[164]
Ibid., p. 178.
Ibid., p. 178.
-
[165]
Keith E. Norman, “Mormon Cosmology: Can It Survive the Big Bang?” Sunstone 10/9 (1985): 10.
Keith E. Norman, “Mormon Cosmology: Can It Survive the Big Bang?” Sunstone 10/9 (1985): 10.
-
[166]
Ibid., p.21. The last phrase in inverted commas is from Paul Davies.
Ibid., p.21. The last phrase in inverted commas is from Paul Davies.
-
[167]
Ibid., p. 22.
Ibid., p. 22.
-
[168]
Richard Schlegel, “Time and Thermodynamics,” in The Voices of Time, ed. J.T. Fraser (London: Penguin, 1948), p. 511.
Richard Schlegel, “Time and Thermodynamics,” in The Voices of Time, ed. J.T. Fraser (London: Penguin, 1948), p. 511.
-
[169]
I. D. Novikov and Ya. B. Zeldovich, “Physical Processes near Cosmological Singularities,” Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 11 (1973): 401-2.
I. D. Novikov and Ya. B. Zeldovich, “Physical Processes near Cosmological Singularities,” Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 11 (1973): 401-2.
-
[170]
Joseph Silk, The Big Bang, 2d ed. (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1989), pp. 311-12.
Joseph Silk, The Big Bang, 2d ed. (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1989), pp. 311-12.
-
[171]
P. C. W. Davies, The Physics of Time Asymmetry (London: Surrey University Press, 1974), p. 104.
P. C. W. Davies, The Physics of Time Asymmetry (London: Surrey University Press, 1974), p. 104.
-
[172]
David H. Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” in The Search for Harmony: Essays on Science and Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1993), p. 4.
David H. Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” in The Search for Harmony: Essays on Science and Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1993), p. 4.
-
[173]
Ibid., p. 8.
Ibid., p. 8.
-
[174]
Ibid., pp. 9-10. Cf. idem, “Science and Mormonism: Past, Present, and Future,” Dialogue 29/1 (1996): 89.
Ibid., pp. 9-10. Cf. idem, “Science and Mormonism: Past, Present, and Future,” Dialogue 29/1 (1996): 89.
-
[175]
Henry Eyring, “World of Evidence, World of Faith,” in Of Heaven and Earth, ed. David L. Clark (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1998), p. 60.
Henry Eyring, “World of Evidence, World of Faith,” in Of Heaven and Earth, ed. David L. Clark (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1998), p. 60.
-
[176]
B. Kent Harrison, “Truth, the Sum of Existence,” in Of Heaven and Earth, p. 173. Harrison believes that God's persistence in an eternally expanding universe “seems to be an unsatisfactory, passive, ungodlike way of prolonging existence or progression.”
B. Kent Harrison, “Truth, the Sum of Existence,” in Of Heaven and Earth, p. 173. Harrison believes that God's persistence in an eternally expanding universe “seems to be an unsatisfactory, passive, ungodlike way of prolonging existence or progression.”
-
[177]
Eyring, “World of Evidence,” p. 66.
Eyring, “World of Evidence,” p. 66.
-
[178]
If Eyring means to endorse some non-standard model of the universe, such as an oscillating model, then he will not have escaped the inevitable consequences of thermodynamics. Indeed, if God is a living, physical being, then the Second Law seems essential to his survival, for in the absence of the Second Law chaos would ensue. Thus in whatever space-time world God lives, the same thermodynamic problem arises.
If Eyring means to endorse some non-standard model of the universe, such as an oscillating model, then he will not have escaped the inevitable consequences of thermodynamics. Indeed, if God is a living, physical being, then the Second Law seems essential to his survival, for in the absence of the Second Law chaos would ensue. Thus in whatever space-time world God lives, the same thermodynamic problem arises.
-
[179]
Eyring, “World of Evidence,” p. 61.
Eyring, “World of Evidence,” p. 61.
-
[180]
Erich Robert Paul, Science, Religion, and Mormon Cosmology (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992), p. 31. This fact is not appreciated by Mormon physicist Russell T. Pack, “Quantum Cosmology,” Sunstone 11/1 (1987): 2-4, who denounces the view that God is a physical object existing in the universe as “ridiculous.” He erroneously claims that “the Mormon God is not part of our universe and He is apparently not limited by either space or time” (Ibid., p. 4). Whether Pack's view can avoid falling into classical theism remains to be seen.
Erich Robert Paul, Science, Religion, and Mormon Cosmology (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992), p. 31. This fact is not appreciated by Mormon physicist Russell T. Pack, “Quantum Cosmology,” Sunstone 11/1 (1987): 2-4, who denounces the view that God is a physical object existing in the universe as “ridiculous.” He erroneously claims that “the Mormon God is not part of our universe and He is apparently not limited by either space or time” (Ibid., p. 4). Whether Pack's view can avoid falling into classical theism remains to be seen.
-
[181]
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” p. 8.
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” p. 8.
-
[182]
Harrison, “Truth, the Sum of Existence,” p. 166; cf. Pack, “Quantum Cosmology,” p. 4.
Harrison, “Truth, the Sum of Existence,” p. 166; cf. Pack, “Quantum Cosmology,” p. 4.
-
[183]
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” p. 9.
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” p. 9.
-
[184]
Ibid.
Ibid.
-
[185]
Norman, “Mormon Cosmology,” p.23.
Norman, “Mormon Cosmology,” p.23.
-
[186]
Bart Kowallis, “Things of the Earth,” in Of Heaven and Earth, p. 41.
Bart Kowallis, “Things of the Earth,” in Of Heaven and Earth, p. 41.
-
[187]
A. Borde and A. Vilenkin, “Eternal Inflation and the Initial Singularity,” Physical Review Letters 72 (1994): 3305, 3307.
A. Borde and A. Vilenkin, “Eternal Inflation and the Initial Singularity,” Physical Review Letters 72 (1994): 3305, 3307.
-
[188]
Harrison, “Truth, the Sum of Existence,” p.160.
Harrison, “Truth, the Sum of Existence,” p.160.
-
[189]
See Christopher Isham, “Creation of the Universe as a Quantum Process,” in Physics, Philosophy and Theology: a Common Quest for Understanding, ed. R. J. Russell, W. R. Stoeger, and G. V. Coyne (Vatican City: Vatican Observatory, 1988), pp. 385-7.
See Christopher Isham, “Creation of the Universe as a Quantum Process,” in Physics, Philosophy and Theology: a Common Quest for Understanding, ed. R. J. Russell, W. R. Stoeger, and G. V. Coyne (Vatican City: Vatican Observatory, 1988), pp. 385-7.
-
[190]
Norman, “Mormon Cosmology,” p. 23.
Norman, “Mormon Cosmology,” p. 23.
-
[191]
Ibid.
Ibid.
-
[192]
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” pp. 10-11.
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” pp. 10-11.
-
[193]
Ibid., p. 9. Other Mormon thinkers will demur. For example, Bart Kowallis, a geology professor at BYU, noting that eternity is “one of the main characteristics of God and godhood,” exclaims, “Compared to infinity, what are a few billion trillion?” (Bart Kowallis, “Things of the Earth,” p. 42).
Ibid., p. 9. Other Mormon thinkers will demur. For example, Bart Kowallis, a geology professor at BYU, noting that eternity is “one of the main characteristics of God and godhood,” exclaims, “Compared to infinity, what are a few billion trillion?” (Bart Kowallis, “Things of the Earth,” p. 42).
-
[194]
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” p. 9.
Bailey, “Scientific Foundations of Mormon Theology,” p. 9.
-
[195]
Blake Ostler, “The Idea of Pre-Existence in the Development of Mormon Thought,” Dialogue 15/1 (1994): 73.
Blake Ostler, “The Idea of Pre-Existence in the Development of Mormon Thought,” Dialogue 15/1 (1994): 73.
-
[196]
See also O. Kendall White, Jr., “The Transformation of Mormon Theology,” Dialogue 5/2 (1970): 10-11. He emphasizes that it is on the basis of creatio ex nihilo that the distinction between God's necessity and creation's contingency is traditionally established.
See also O. Kendall White, Jr., “The Transformation of Mormon Theology,” Dialogue 5/2 (1970): 10-11. He emphasizes that it is on the basis of creatio ex nihilo that the distinction between God's necessity and creation's contingency is traditionally established.
-
[197]
One gets the impression that some Mormon thinkers believe that eternal personalism is somehow incompatible with absolutism. But this is a mistake. See William Lane Craig, “Divine Timelessness and Personhood,” International Journal for Philosophy of Religion. 43 (1998): 109-124 and the cited literature therein.
One gets the impression that some Mormon thinkers believe that eternal personalism is somehow incompatible with absolutism. But this is a mistake. See William Lane Craig, “Divine Timelessness and Personhood,” International Journal for Philosophy of Religion. 43 (1998): 109-124 and the cited literature therein.